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Canaan Valley & Environs
2015 Southeastern Naturalist 14(Special Issue 7):232–251
Rare Plant and Animal Species of Canaan Valley
Brian McDonald*
Abstract - Canaan Valley, an unusual, high-elevation bowl in the Mid-Atlantic region, is
a headwater basin of the upper Blackwater River. Because of its unique geological and
topographical setting, many plant and animal species, as well as several plant communities
that are considered to be rare in West Virginia, are found in the Blackwater River
watershed. In this paper, I describe the distribution of 72 rare species in general terms and
discuss selected plant and animal species in greater detail. I also characterize potential
threats and offer recommendations regarding the inventorying and monitoring of these
rare taxa and natural communities.
Introduction
Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley), defined as the drainage of the headwaters
of the Blackwater River downstream to the gap between Canaan and Brown
Mountains, harbors 48 species of vascular plants and 15 species of vertebrate
animals ranked as rare in West Virginia (WVDNR 2002). Though it is difficult
to objectively define threatened, endangered, and rare, the network of state
Natural Heritage Programs has established a ranking system based on the number
of documented populations. Based on the number of known populations
of a species either within a state or across its entire range, biologists assign a
numerical value to that species that reflects its relative rarity (Appendix 1).
The ranks apply to both the state and global status of a species; state and global
ranks are preceded by the letter S and G, respectively. Each state’s Natural Heritage
Program assigns a state rank, and NatureServe, the centralized data hub of
all Natural Heritage Programs, assigns global ranks by combining the data from
each state/province/country within a species’ range.
The West Virginia Natural Heritage Program (WVNHP), a unit within the
Wildlife Resources Section of the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources,
gathers and maintains site-specific population information on species that are
state-ranked as 1, 2, or 3. These are species that may need monitoring and/or
conservation action so that they continue to be part of West Virginia’s natural
heritage. The species documented from the Valley and tracked by the WVNHP
are listed in Appendix 2. Appendix 2 also shows whether species records are
recent, i.e., seen in the last 20 years, or historic, i.e, previously recorded in the
state but not observed within the last 20 years.
For this paper, I group the species considered to be rare in the Valley according
to four general habitat types—wetlands, upland forest, open/streamside, and
aquatic—and provide an annotated species account for each.
*Natural Heritage Program, Wildlife Resources Section, West Virginia Division of Natural
Resources, PO Box 67, Elkins, WV 26241. Current address - 204 White Oak Lane, Elkins,
WV 26241. Direct all correspondence to George Constantz: constantz@frontiernet.net.
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Rare Plants of Wetlands
Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir; S3, G5) is a spire-shaped, soft-needled conifer
that persists at its southern range limit in West Virginia (NatureServe 2002).
This tree is also called Blister Pine because of the resin-filled blisters that are
expressed on the trunk and branches of large specimens. Both the resin and
the needles have the characteristic aroma that makes this species a favorite for
Christmas trees and wreaths. Because of the relative scarcity of native Balsam Fir
in the state, there can be no sustained yield for commercial purposes, and collection
for holiday uses should be restricted to plantation-grown trees.
Balsam Fir is common in the Northeast and eastern Canada, but in West
Virginia it is only found in Grant, Tucker, Randolph, and Pocahontas counties
(WVDNR 2002). Scattered stands occur in the Valley. An adelgid, a small sapsucking
exotic insect, threatens the continued existence of this tree species not
only here, but also throughout its range in the state (WVDNR 2002). Balsam
Fir mortality is apparent in several areas of the Valley. Because this species is
palatable to deer, there is some concern about the ability of the young trees to
become established and then grow to maturity (White 2012). Deer exclosures
were built in 2001 in Canaan Valley State Park and the Canaan Valley National
Wildlife Refuge to examine the effects of deer browse on seedling establishment
(Saville 2003).
Wetlands and moist forests are the predominant habitat for Balsam Fir
throughout its range, including in West Virginia. Most stands occur at the edge
of bogs and other low areas at elevations above 2900 feet (884 m). No original
uncut stands of Balsam Fir have been documented in the state. The prospect for
long-term survival of this species in West Virginia is diminishing each year.
Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash; S2S3, G5) is also a northern tree that reaches its
southern range limit in West Virginia. It is found in wet woods and swamps that
are usually associated with calcareous soils (Strausbaugh and Core 1978). Its
presence in Canaan Valley State Park and one other site is partly due to limestone
deposits that are close to the surface. Black Ash occurs in the Abes Run
wetland, both above the Park entrance road and below the road along the naturetrail
boardwalk. The only other ash species documented in Tucker County is
F. americana L. (White Ash). White Ash prefers drier sites, so those observed in
the Valley’s wetlands are likely Black Ash.
Restricted to wet habitats, Lycopodiella inundata (Bog Clubmoss; S2, G5) cooccurs
in the Valley’s bogs with various species of Sphagnum (peat mosses) or on
the edges of wetlands with exposed mineral soils. West Virginia is at the southern
edge of this northern, trailing clubmoss’ range (NatureServe 2002). Clubmosses,
also referred to as ground pine or running cedar, are sometimes collected for
Christmas decorations. Bog Clubmoss is too rare to support a sustained yield,
even for personal use.
Only two populations of Viburnum opulus var. americanum (Highbush Cranberry;
S1, G5) are known to persist in West Virginia, and both grow in Canaan
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Valley State Park. This shrub, common in Canada and the northern states, reaches
a height of about 10 ft (3.1 m) and has opposite, deeply three-lobed leaves with
toothed margins. Its showy white flower clusters appear in June or July (Strausbaugh
and Core 1978). Because Highbush Cranberry grows in swamps where few
people search for plants, there may be undocumented occurrences in the Valley.
Its red fruits, which are each about 1/3 in (0.85 cm) in diameter, gave rise to the
common name “cranberry”, yet this plant is not a true cranberry of the Ericaceae;
rather, it is placed within the Caprifoliaceae. Highbush Cranberry can be easily
observed from the Blackwater River Trail and along the River.
Before the 1980s, the distribution of Salix discolor (Glaucous or Pussy Willow;
S2, G5) was represented in the Valley by only three historical records, all
from the 1940s. Since then, it has been found at several locations in Canaan
Valley State Park and elsewhere (WVDNR 2002). Willows are notoriously difficult
to identify, so are often passed over by naturalists. Further, because Pussy
Willows occupy inaccessible wet areas of the Valley, it is likely that other populations
have been overlooked. The best time to search for this species is early
spring, when its buds expand into the well-known pussy-willow stage. However,
several other willow species also have tomentose expanding buds, so different
characters must be used to discern the species.
Despite its common name, Rhamnus alnifolia (Alder-leaved Buckthorn;
S1, G5) does not have thorns. This small shrub’s preference for swampy habitat
makes it vulnerable to habitat destruction. This globally common species
ranges across Canada and southward through the northern United States into
West Virginia and Tennessee (NatureServe 2002). The floodplain of the North
Branch Blackwater River and 3 sites in Canaan Valley State Park comprise its
known locations in the Valley. Its flowers are small, not showy, and situated
along the stem. They give rise to small, black, oblong berry-like fruits about 1/3
in (0.85 cm) in diameter (Strausbaugh and Core 1978). The leaves are similar
to those of Alnus glutinosa L. (Common Alder), as the common name suggests,
although this buckthorn is considerably shorter and grows as scattered plants
rather than in alder-like clumps.
Equisetum spp. (horsetails) are unusual, primitive vascular plants that reproduce
via spores rather than seeds and are distantly related to ferns. Equisetum
sylvaticum (Woodland Horsetail; S1, G5) grows a central stem from which
branching stems radiate outwards in whorls. Spores are produced in an oblong
strobilus that resembles a cone borne at the top of the central stem. As the season
progresses, these fertile stems become branched like the sterile stems. After the
spores are dispersed and the strobili wither, the fertile and sterile plants look
identical. Silica deposits in horsetail stems have given one species, Equisetum
hyemale L. (Scouring Rush), its common name. The abrasive silica made the
stems useful for scouring pots and pans in pioneer times. Only two populations of
this species, both in the Valley, are known to be extant in the state. The Valley’s
populations, and one in Virginia, represent this circumboreal species’ southernmost
range extent (NatureServe 2002, WVDNR 2002). As its common name
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suggests, the typical habitat for the Woodland Horsetail is a cool, moist forest
(Strausbaugh and Core 1978).
A small member of the buttercup family, Coptis trifolia ssp. groenlandica
(Goldthread; S2, G5), is named for its bright gold-colored roots. Its compound
leaves consist of three leaflets that seem to grow individually out of the ground
in bogs or other wet areas. In the springtime, a single white symmetrical flower,
which also appears to grow directly from the ground, emerges. Both the leaves and
flowers are 3–6 in (7.6–15.2 cm) tall (Strausbaugh and Core 1978). Goldthread
is common in the boreal forests of Canada and the northern US, but the species
has a more limited distribution in the uplands of West Virginia. One record from
1985 near Glade Run is the species’ only documented occurrence in the Valley
(WVDNR 2002). Because of Goldthread’s small size and inaccessible habitat, it is
likely that other populations occur in the Valley but have yet to be documented.
Until a specimen was collected in 2002, Thelypteris simulata (Bog Fern;
S1, G4G5) had last been recorded in the Valley in 1948 (WVDNR 2002). Few
naturalists traverse bogs, and even fewer pay close attention to fern morphology,
including the forking of veins on the abaxial surface of pinnae, which characterizes
this species.
Many Carex spp. (sedges) require considerable expertise to identify to species
level. Even specialists disagree on the identity of many species. Although
12 species of sedges on the WVNHP tracking list have been documented in the
Valley, only 5 are represented by more than 1 site record (WVDNR 2002). Most
of the species are northern in distribution; one is restricted to the Appalachians
(see Appendix 2 for the complete list). In 2004, new observations resulted in the
addition of several rare sedge species to the Valley’s flora. Additional surveys
of this cryptic group will undoubtedly result in the discovery of more species as
well as additional locations of previously documented taxa.
Two S3, G5 species, Scirpus atrocinctus (Black-girdle Bulrush) and S. microcarpus
(Small-flowered Bulrush), are called woolgrasses because of their hairy
fruits. The flowers, as is typical of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), lack petals
and are small, brownish, and not showy. Woolgrasses likely occur more often
than they are observed. The elongated, grass-like leaves are clustered at the base
of the plant and the flowering stalk arises from the center of this clump in June
or July. Both the Black-girdle and Small-flowered Bulrushes are at the southern
limit of their ranges in the upland forest region of West Virginia (NatureServe
2002). These 2 species are scattered throughout the Valley, where they grow in
their typical habitats of wet meadow, bog, and swamp edge. There are about a
dozen bulrush species in West Virginia, all of which are fairly difficult to discern.
The Rush family, Juncaceae, is represented by several species in the Valley.
One of them, Juncus filiformis (Thread Rush; S2, G5), is rare and has a northerly
range. First collected in 1940 during a West Virginia University biological
expedition, Thread Rush has since been collected at several sites in the Valley
(WVDNR 2002). This species is similar to J. effusus L. (Common Rush), so care
must be taken with identification.
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Grasses (Poaceae) comprise a large family of plants, with three species considered
rare in the Valley: Glyceria grandis (American Mannagrass; S2, G5),
G. laxa (Northern Manngrass; S1, G5), and Torreyochloa pallida var. fernaldii
(Fernald’s False Mannagrass; S2, G4). All three are northern species that occur
in wetlands scattered throughout the Valley (NatureServe 2002, WVDNR 2002).
Even though these species vary considerably in size, they are not easy to identify
because of the small technical characters used to dfferentiate species.
Zigadenus leimanthoides (Oceanorus or Bog Camas; S2, G4) is a perennial
plant with small, greenish-white flowers. It has an unusual distribution:
(1) sandy pinelands and bogs along the Atlantic coast from New Jersey southward
to Louisiana, and (2) wet soils of the Appalachian Mountains from West
Virginia to North Carolina (NatureServe 2002). The flowering stalk, which appears
in July and August, arises from a basal clump of narrow strap-like leaves.
One of its common names refers to the two regions it occupies: ocean for the
coastal plain and oro, which is Greek for mountain. Bog Camas is the only
member of the lily family recorded in the Valley that appears on the WVNHP
rare plant list. Several populations have been documented in the Valley including
one in a bog near Cortland Road and another along the Blackwater River
east of Camp 7 (WVDNR 2002).
Three orchid species (Orchidaceae) have been observed in the Valley. The
largest and most elegant, Cypripedium reginae (Showy Lady’s-slipper; S1, G4),
occurs at one location in Canaan Valley State Park. The only other site in West
Virginia where Showy Lady’s-slipper has been recorded is in Greenbrier County
(WVDNR 2002). Its flowers are similar to those ofthe more common Cypripedium
acaule Aiton (Pink Lady’s-slipper), but they are borne on a leafy stem instead
of a leafless stalk. Several of the Valley’s Showy Lady’s-slipper plants have been
fenced to protect them from browsing by deer (Saville 2003).
Listera smallii (Kidney-leaf Twayblade; S2, G4), a southern Appalachian
endemic orchid, is known from one site in Canaan Valley State Park (WVDNR
2002). This small plant grows two opposite leaves on the stem, each less than 1
in (2.5 cm) long, and produces an inconspicuous flower spike.
Pogonia ophioglossoides (Rose Pogonia; S2, G5) has been found at one location
in a bog off Cortland Road (WVDNR 2002). This short orchid has a showy,
pink, solitary flower.
A short plant of bogs and moist woods, Dalibarda repens (Star Violet or
Robin Runaway; S3, G5) is found in scattered sites across the Valley. Individual
leaves emerge from creeping stems, as do flowering stalks bearing a single
white flower. This northern species is restricted to montane habitats at the
southern end of its range (NatureServe 2002). The flowers of Goldthread and
Star Violet appear similar although this “violet” is actually in the Rosaceae
and Goldthread is assigned to the Ranunculaceae.
Vaccinium macrocarpon (Large Cranberry; S2, G4) was documented in the
Valley below Canaan Mountain in 1959, but that exact location is unclear. In
2001, the species was formally documented again by a specimen from the Valley
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(WVDNR 2002). This species has surely been either overlooked or observed
at locations that have not been documented by collection or publication. The
WVNHP tracks locations for both the Large Cranberry and V. oxycoccos L.
(Small Cranberry). Sightings of either species should be reported so that their
ranges can be properly documented. These are the cranberries that are commercially
harvested, although they are scarce enough in West Virginia that there is no
commercial trade here. The berries are at their best in late autumn, usually after
the first good frost.
Geum rivale (Purple Avens; S1, G5) is a hairy, perennial, herbaceous plant
15–30 in (38–76 cm) tall, with a clump of deeply cut basal leaves and reduced,
simple stem leaves. Each flower, up to 1 in (2.5 cm) broad, has five purple petals
and many stamens. This is the only avens in the state with purple flowers.
Swamps and wet meadows are preferred habitats of this northern species, which
ranges across Canada and the northern US (NatureServe 2002, Strausbaugh and
Core 1978). West Virginia’s populations represent the southern limit of the species’
range. In recent years, several populations have been seen in Canaan Valley
State Park (e.g., Abe’s Run Nature Trail boardwalk) and elsewhere. Purple Avens
is best seen while in bloom in June and July .
Similar in general appearance to Purple Avens, Geum aleppicum (Yellow
Avens; S1, G5) has larger stem leaves and yellow flowers. This species has a
northern distribution, with a southern extension stretching into the Central Appalachians
(NatureServe 2002). Yellow Avens has not been documented in the
Valley since 1969; the only other Valley record is from 1941 (WVDNR 2002).
Moist meadows and swamps are its preferred habitats.
Polemonium vanbruntiae (Jacob’s Ladder; S2, G3) is a globally rare plant
that lives in scattered swamps and streamside seeps from Quebec and New
Brunswick southward into West Virginia (NatureServe 2002). This wetland
species grows 3 ft (0.9 m) tall and should not be confused with the more widespread
and shorter Polemonium reptans L. var. reptans (Greek Valerian ), which
grows in rich woods and thickets. Both herbaceous species have attractive, alternate,
compound leaves composed of many pairs of leaflets. As its common
name suggests, Jacob’s Ladder’s leaves resemble the rungs of a ladder. Its flowers
are bright blue-purple and about 3/4 in (1.9 cm) across. Because the plant
grows in wetland habitats where few observers walk, it may occur more often
than has been reported. About 20 Jacob’s Ladder locations have been documented
in the Valley (WVDNR 2002).
Recorded in several counties in the northern half of West Virginia, Saxifraga
pensylvanica (Swamp Saxifrage; S2, G5) has been documented from two sites in
the Valley, one recent and the other historic (WVDNR 2002). Its leafless flowering
stalk arises from a basal rosette. Swamp Saxifrage should be sought in shrub
swamps and wet meadows.
Veronica scutellata (Marsh Speedwell; S1, G5) is a northern species found
at the southern limits of its range in West Virginia (NatureServe 2002). Growing
in wet meadows, swamps, and bogs, it is represented in the Valley by two
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documented occurrences. Marsh Speedwell blooms from June to September,
displays blue flowers, and linear to linear -lanceolate, opposite leaves.
Rare Birds of Wetlands
The breeding bird atlas project of 1984–1989 (Buckelew and Hall 1994) lists
only two confirmed breeding records for Empidonax alnorum (Alder Flycatcher;
S3B, G5) in West Virginia—one in the Valley, the other in Jefferson County
(WVDNR 2002). There are also several possible and probable records from the
Valley (WVDNR 2002). Since publication of the Breeding Bird Atlas (Buckelew
and Hall 1994), birders have reported that it is actually a common breeder
throughout the Valley’s shrub wetlands (WVDNR 2002). Empidonax traillii
(Audubon) (Willow Flycatcher) and the Alder Flycatcher are so similar that they
cannot be reliably distinguished by sight. Thus, their calls are used to identify
them in the field: the Alder Flycatcher sounds like a burry “rreeBEEa” compared
to the Willow’s “RITZbew”. The Alder Flycatcher is a northern species that
reaches its southern breeding limit in the Appalachian Mountain highlands as far
south as the Great Smoky Mountains. Because it is a nondescript bird of shrub
swamps, it has likely been overlooked.
Rare Plants of Upland Forests
One of West Virginia University’s Biological Expeditions recorded Lonicera
canadensis (American Fly Honeysuckle; S2, G5) in 1941 and listed “Canaan
Valley” as the collection location on the herbarium label (WVDNR 2002). There
are several historic records and only two recent records for this shrub in West
Virginia. One of the historic collections was from the Valley, but given the plant’s
distribution in the eastern and southern mountain counties, it is quite possible that
it will again be found there.
A 1959 record from the slope of Cabin Mountain is the only known occurrence
of Botrychium matricariifolium (Chamomile Grape-fern; S2, G5) in
the Valley. Grape-ferns are easily overlooked; some species are hard to distinguish.
This 2–10-in (5.1–25.4-cm)-tall species grows in thickets and rich
woods (Strausbaugh and Core 1978).
Cornus canadensis (Dwarf Dogwood; S3, G5) is a classic example of a northern
plant that reaches its southern limit in West Virginia, where it occurs from
Preston County southward to Pocahontas County (WVDNR 2002). This diminutive
dogwood reaches a height of only 3–6 in (7.6–15.2 cm) and could be easily
overlooked when it is not in bloom or fruit. It is most apparent in late summer
when the bright red fruits stand out from the its surroundings. It grows in both
upland locations and along the edges of wetlands.
Rare Animals of Upland Forests
Plethodon nettingi (Cheat Mountain Salamander; S3, G3) is one of the Appalachians’
small woodland salamanders. It is one of two species in the Valley that
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are included on the federal threatened and endangered species list (NatureServe
2002). Cheat Mountain Salamander populations persist on both sides of the Valley’s
southern end, i.e., Cabin and Canaan Mountains. Furthermore, it is the only
rare animal species in the Valley that is also endemic to West Virginia (Nature-
Serve 2002). The Cheat Mountain Salamander’s preferred habitat is spruce or
mixed spruce/deciduous forest located above 2400 feet (732 m) in elevation
(Pauley 2015 [this issue]).
Accipiter gentilis (Northern Goshawk; S1B, G5) nests sporadically in and
around the Valley. There is a 1995 record from Brown Mountain and a historical
record (1975) from the forest near Sand Run (Buckelew and Hall 1994, WVDNR
2002). Northern Goshawks live in mature forests and breed from April through
June. The female vigorously defends her territory by calling loudly, even swooping
down on intruders. Based on this behavior, one could surmise that the nests
would be easy to find, but the birds prefer remote habitats in which people spend
little time. The higher elevations of West Virginia have provided the southernmost
breeding records for Northern Goshawks in the eastern US (Buckelew and
Hall 1994, WVDNR 2002).
Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus (Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel; S2, G5T2 LE)
is also included on the federal list of threatened and endangered species (USFWS
1990). This nocturnal squirrel was documented on a ridge along the western edge
of the Valley and is included in the Blackwater River drainage by the smallest
of margins. Other known locations for the Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel are
west of the ridge of Canaan Mountain and, according to watershed delineation,
are just outside the Valley (WVDNR 2002). In West Virginia, the Northern Flying
Squirrel, like the Cheat Mountain Salamander, inhabits spruce and mixed
hardwood/spruce forests.
Sylvilagus obscurus (Appalachian Cottontail; S2, G4) favors forest habitats,
whereas the closely related Sylvilagus floridanus (J.A. Allen) (Eastern Cottontail)
is usually found in open brushy habitats. The Appalachian Cottontail is poorly
documented in the Valley; its most recent record from the general area is from
1975 (WVDNR 2002). This species lives at high elevations along the spine of the
Appalachians. The only obvious difference between the 2 cottontail species is that
the Appalachian Cottontail has a black spot between its ears, which is absent in the
Eastern Cottontail. It is difficult to discern this character on a bounding lagomorph,
so it is not surprising that data are scarce for this species.
Because it builds its nest under the loose bark of dead trees, the small, brown
Certhia americana (Brown Creeper; S3B, S4N, G5) is often found in mature
forests or around newly built beaver ponds where exfoliating bark is available.
Brown Creepers are hard to spot, but their behavior of spiraling upwards around a
tree trunk while foraging is characteristic. At least two confirmed Brown Creeper
breeding records were reported in the 1980s’ breeding bird survey of the Valley
(Buckelew and Hall 1994, WVDNR 2002). In the eastern US, Brown Creepers occur
along the spine of the Appalachians southward to the Great Smoky Mountains
(Sibley 2014). Its high-pitched call is difficult to hear, so birds may go unnoticed.
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Rare Plants of Streamside/Open Habitats
Dodders are a group of unusual parasitic herbaceous plants that lack chlorophyll
and are yellowish or reddish in color. The plants lack roots, grow by twining among
the stems of other herbaceous species, and obtain nutrients by attaching root-like
structures directly to the host plant. Although seven dodder species occur in West
Virginia, Cuscuta rostrata (Beaked Dodder; S2, G4) is the only one restricted to
higher elevations. As mentioned previously herein, many other rare plant species
reach their southern limit in the highlands of West Virginia, but Beaked Dodder is
a southern Appalachian species that reaches its northern limit there (Strausbaugh
and Core 1978). Its historic distribution included Maryland and Georgia, but it is
now known only from North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.
Most dodder species, including Beaked Dodder, prefer moist locations with a rich
herbaceous plant cover, including floodplains. Its orange color contrasts with the
generally green background. Each flower is 1/5 in (0.5 cm) long, inconspicuous,
and usually white in color. In terms of growth form and life cycle, this plant is one of
the area’s most unusual species. Beaked Dodder likely persists in the Valley, but it
has not been documented there since the 1940s, when it was seen near the mouth of
the Glade Creek and along the Little Blackwater River (WVDNR 2002).
The composite Eupatorium pilosum (Vervain Thoroughwort; SH, G5) was
first documented in the Valley in 1941 along the Little Blackwater River. More
recently, Vervain Thoroughwort was recorded in Canaan Valley State Park
(WVDNR 2002). Although it is found in several West Virginia counties, including
Tucker County, there are no recent records for Vervain Thoroughwort from
the Valley. Thoroughwort species are not uncommon but are challenging to identify
to the species level, so many naturalists simply lump them as thoroughworts.
Seventeen Euphorbia spp. (spurges) occur in West Virginia—eight of these
are native, and the rest are exotic weeds and transient species. Of the native
species, only Euphorbia purpurea (Glade Spurge; S2, G3) grows in wetlands
(Strausbaugh and Core 1978). This spurge is typically found in high-elevation
wetlands overlying limestone bedrock, but it also occurs in moist pastures over
limestone. The largest known population grows in limestone pastures between
the Sinks of Gandy and Blister Swamp, an area that straddles the Randolph–
Pocahontas county line (WVDNR 2002). The Valley supports several Glade
Spurge populations; these are the northernmost populations in the state (WVDNR
2002)]. The most accessible place to find this 2–3-ft (0.6–0.9-m)-tall, alternateleaved,
perennial, herbaceous plant is along the nature trail in Canaan Valley
State Park. The flowers, which appear in June, are tiny and greenish-white. The
plant has milky, acrid sap that seems to repel most herbivores. Glade Spurge
occurs from North Carolina north to Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. This
species, which is rare in all of these states, is under study for possible addition to
the federal endangered species list (USFWS 1990).
Stachys tenuifolia (Smooth Hedge-nettle; S2, G4) is a member of the mint family.
Although more common in West Virginia’s western counties, it can be found
near Cortland Road in the Valley; its occurrence in the Valley is unexpected.
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Smooth Hedge-nettle can attain a height of 3 ft (0.9 m) and is usually found in
moist, shaded habitats (Strausbaugh and Core 1978).
Although Hasteola suaveolens (Sweet-scented Indian-plantain; S2, G3) has a
wide distribution in the north-central and northeastern states, it apparently is not
common anywhere within its range (NatureServe 2002). This is a large plant, up
to 5 ft (1.5 m) tall. The flowers are small and not showy, so it is likely that this
species is often overlooked and just considered one of many non-descript, tall,
late-blooming composites. Sweet-Scented Indian-plantain grows along the Valley’s
streambanks.
Viola appalachiensis (Appalachian Blue Violet; S2S3, G5) is unusual in the
violet family in that it can reproduce by sending out runners which root at
the nodes and produce new plants. Apparently endemic to the central Appalachians
(NatureServe 2002, WVDNR 2002), the status of its nomenclature and
distribution are still in question. Two sites have been documented in old fields
within Canaan Valley State Park (WVDNR 2002)]. Appalachian Blue Violet
may be more widespread but is overlooked because of its similarity to Viola sororia
Willd. (Common Blue Violet).
Rare Animals of Streamside/Open Habitats
The large hawk Circus cyanus (Northern Harrier; S1B, G5) has not been
documented as nesting in the Valley since the mid-20th century, but there have
been more recent observations of this raptor from the Dolly Sods area (WVDNR
2002). Although it nests farther south along the Atlantic coast, the Valley is near
the southernmost high-elevation limit of its breeding range (Buckelew and Hall
1994). Northern Harriers are known to nest sporadically at the southern limit of
its range, so the absence of documented nesting in the Valley is not of great concern.
This species feeds and breeds in open grasslands, wet meadows, and bogs
(Sibley 2014). Northern Harriers are regularly seen in the Valley as migrants and
summer visitors. Its obvious white rump-patch facilitates ident ification.
In the Valley, Seiurus noveboracensis (Northern Waterthrush; S2B, G5) is
at the southern end of its nesting range. The breeding bird survey of the 1980s
yielded several confirmed Northern Waterthrush records in the Valley (WVDNR
2002). This ground-loving warbler inhabits edges of bogs and beaver ponds. The
Northern Waterthrush is easily confused with its congener, Seiurus motacilla
(Vieillot) (Louisiana Waterthrush), which breeds throughout the state.
Vermivora ruficapilla (Nashville Warbler; S1B, G5) was confirmed as breeding
in the Valley area in 1985 (Buckelew and Hall 1994). This observation was the only
documented nesting record in West Virginia during the 1984–1989 data-gathering
period for the West Virginia breeding bird atlas. The Nashville Warbler is a nondescript
bird of second-growth forests and spruce bogs.
In 2001, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Bobolink; S2B, G5) was observed to be nesting
in field habitats in the Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge. This bird is
known to breed more widely in the Valley area (WVDNR 2002). For years, the
Bobolink has been a favorite of birders participating in both the Blackwater Falls
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Wildflower Pilgrimage and the Wildlife Diversity Weekend. The breeding bird
atlas (Buckelew and Hall 1994) has no confirmed records for the Valley itself,
but recent studies have catalogued this bird in the Valley (WVDNR 2002). There
is little doubt that local birders have enjoyed them for years, even though the
literature does not document it.
Pooecetes gramineus (Vesper Sparrow; S3B, G5) was listed as a possible
nester during the breeding bird survey of the 1980s (Buckelew and Hall 1994).
Then in 1999, one nest was found in typical grassland habitat on the Canaan Valley
National Wildlife Refuge. The Vesper Sparrow breeds in scattered locales,
particularly in the northern half of West Virginia (WVDNR 2002). The habitat
preferred by this species—open fields with scattered small trees—is not common
in the state, so this bird’s uncommon status is not a surprise. The Vesper Sparrow
is similar to the more common Passerculus sandwichensis (Gmelin) (Savannah
Sparrow), but Vesper Sparrows have white outer tail feathers.
Neotoma magister (Allegheny Woodrat; S3, G3G4) lives in rocky areas with
deep crevices or cave-like openings. Although the Valley does not have much of
this habitat type, a population was found in an abandoned quarry at the Valley’s
southern end (WVDNR 2002). The Valley’s quarry population may be a northern
extension of a population along Route 32 just outside the Valley, where there is
a line of outcropping bedrock. This species is widespread in West Virginia. Unfortunately,
populations north of West Virginia have been disappearing because
of disease and/or habitat fragmentation (NatureServe 2002, WVDNR 2002).
A tiny shrew, Sorex hoyi winnemana (Southern Pygmy Shrew; S2S3, G4),
has been reported from the Valley area but additional information is unavailable
(WVDNR 2002). The Pygmy Shrew is the smallest mammal species native to
North America, weighing about as much as a dime. Because of its small size, it is
seldom seen. This species is captured with pit-fall traps because few other devices
are small enough to hold them. About 2 in (5.1 cm) long, Pygmy Shrews can be discerned
from other shrew species by the number of unicuspid teeth (Hall 1981).
Zapus hudsonius (Meadow Jumping Mouse; S3, G5) was documented along
Glade Run in 1992. This long-legged mouse is likely more common and widespread
in West Virginia than previously thought because recent records are
numerous (WVDNR 2002). Its preferred habitat is open grassland, which is
abundant in the Valley. The more common Napaeozapus insignis (Miller) (Woodland
Jumping Mouse) is similar in appearance but has a white tip on its tail, which
the Meadow Jumping Mouse lacks. More surveys around the state may lead to the
removal of this species from the West Virginia rare-species tracking list.
Rare Animals of Aquatic Habitats
Clinostoma elongatus (Redside Dace; S1S2, G3G4) was found in the mainstem
and tributaries of the Blackwater River within the Valley in the 1940s
and 1950s (WVDNR 2002). However, based on surveys from the 1990s, this
minnow is currently restricted to a couple of cold-water tributaries (WVDNR
2002). Redside Dace is a glacial relict that requires clean, cold streams and,
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based on its decline in the last couple of decades, has apparently lost habitat
within the Valley.
Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill) (Brook Trout; S5, G5) needs aquatic conditions
similar to those preferred by Redside Dace. It has also experienced
a decline in the number of stream miles it occupies in the Valley’s region
(WVDNR 2002).
Four other fishes—Hypentelium nigricans (Northern Hog Sucker; S5, G5),
Nocomis micropogon (River Chub; S5, G5), Etheostoma flabellare (Fantail
Darter; S5, G5), and Percina maculata (Blackside Darter; S5, G5)—were documented
from the Blackwater River above the Falls, but they have likely been
extirpated, as indicated by recent surveys (WVDNR 2002). Additional research
is warranted to determine the causes of these ichthyofaunal changes in the upper
Blackwater River.
Rare and Uncommon Birds that May Breed in the Valley
During the 1984–1989 breeding bird survey, the following bird species
were indicated by the WVNHP as possible or probable breeders in the Valley
area: Botaurus lentiginosus (American Bittern; S1B, S1N, G4), Accipiter
striatus (Sharp-shinned Hawk; SNR, G5), Accipiter cooperii (Cooper’s Hawk;
SNR, G5), Actitis macularius (Spotted Sandpiper; S3B, G5), Gallinago gallinago
(Common Snipe; SNR, G5), Tyto alba (Barn Owl; S2B, S2N, G5),
Eremophila alpestris (Horned Lark; S2B, S3N, G5), Vermivora chrysoptera
(Golden-winged Warbler; S2B, G4), Setophaga coronata (Yellow-rumped
Warbler; S1S2B, S4N, G5), and Ammodramus savannarum (Grasshopper
Sparrow; S3B G5) (Buckelew and Hall 1994).
There have been reports of two species for which we have little documentation.
In 1990, a singing male Cistothorus platensis (Latham) (Sedge Wren;
S1B G5), was observed on his territory along Cortland Road in the Valley, and
Aegolius acadicus (Gmelin) (Northern Saw-whet Owl; S2B S1N G5) has been
reported in the Valley area.
Our State of Knowledge and Research Needs
In 2002, when the information in this paper was compiled, we had historic
data for only 11 of the 42 rare plant species. I define historic data as >20 years
old. In the early 2000s, several additional studies updated 7 of those records to
recent status and added 6 additional rare plants to the Valley’s flora (WVDNR
2002). These recent findings suggest that, despite considerable interest in the
Valley’s flora, there is a lot more to be learned about the status and distribution
of plants in this unique high-elevation basin. Firther, if current trends continue,
the future of Balsam Fir in the Valley is bleak. Little documentation of the nonvascular
plants and fungi is available for the Valley.
Fifteen of the Valley’s vertebrate animals are considered rare (five mammals,
eight breeding birds, one amphibian, and one fish). Many of the records for these
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taxa are 10 years old or older. Recent records need to be compiled and added to
the rare species database. Redside Dace appears to be disappearing from the Valley
for unknown reasons, and four other fishes have apparently been lost from
the upper Blackwater River in recent times (WVDNR 2002). Very little is known
about the occurrence and status of the Valley’s invertebrates.
We do not have adequate data on the species of the Valley as a whole. A number
of plants and animals that occur in the region have not been documented in
the Valley despite the fact that their occurrences are likely because the Valley
offers suitable habitat within known distributions. An ongoing survey is needed
to fill this void and to understand the plant communities and habitats that are
important to each species.
Plant communities need to be delineated in a manner that is compatible
with the International Vegetation Community Classification System (IVCCS)
so that the vegetation in the Valley can be compared to other types nationwide
(WVDNR 2002). This is the only way to truly assess the rarity of the regions’
plant communities. The IVCCS is used by state Natural Heritage Programs
and the National Park Service, and is accepted as the federal data standard for
community delineation (NatureServe 2002, WVDNR 2002). Without comprehensive
knowledge of the natural resource, conservation of the Valley’s unique
species and plant communities will be difficult. We know that the Valley and
its environs have a greater number of occurrences of rare animals and plants
than any other area of comparable size in West Virginia (WVDNR 2002),
which reflects the unique nature of the central Appalachian Mountains.
Anyone wishing to share information about the Valley’s biota is encouraged
to contact the WVNHP. Data stored there are generally available to
researchers, educators, and others interested in the natural history of the Central
Appalachians.
Literature Cited
Buckelew, A.R., Jr., and G.A. Hall. 1994. The West Virginia Breeding Bird Atlas. University
of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA. 215 pp.
Hall, E.R. 1981. The Mammals of North America, Vols. I and II. John Wiley and Sons,
New York, NY. 1181 pp.
NatureServe. 2002. NatureServe database. Available online at http://www.
natureserve.org.
Pauley, T.K. 2015. Amphibians in the Canaan Valley drainage. Southeastern Naturalist
14(Special Issue 7):314–322.
Saville, D. 2003. Balsam Fir conservation. West Virginia Division of Forestry Tally
Sheet: March. Charleston, WV.
Sibley, D.A. 2014. Sibley Guide to Birds. 2nd Edition. Knopf, New York, NY. 624 pp.
Strausbaugh, P.D., and E.L. Core. 1978. Flora of West Virginia. 2nd Edition. Seneca
Books, Inc., Grantsville, WV. 1079 pp.
US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1990. Endangered and threatened wildlife and
plants: Review of plant taxa for listing as endangered or threatened species. US Department
of the Interior. Federal Register 55:35.
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West Virginia Division of Natural Resources (WVDNR). 2002. WV Natural Heritage
Database list of rare, threatened and endangered species. Available online at http://
www.wvdnr.gov/wildlife/endangered.shtm.
White, M. 2012. Long-term effects of deer-browsing: Composition, structure, and productivity
in a northeastern Minnesota old-growth forest. Forest Ecology and Management
269:222–228.
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Appendix 1. Explanation of global, state, and federal ranks.
Rank Description
Global ranks
G1 Critically Imperiled - Critically imperiled globally because of extreme rarity
or because of some factor(s) making it especially vulnerable to extinction;
typically 5 or fewer occurrences or very few remaining individuals (less than 1000)
or acres (less than 2000) or linear miles (less than 10).
G2 Imperiled - Imperiled globally because of rarity or because of some factor(s)
making it very vulnerable to extinction or elimination; typically 6–20 occurrences
or few remaining individuals (1000–3000) or acres (2000–10,000) or
linear miles (10–50).
G3 Vulnerable - Vulnerable globally either because very rare and local throughout
its range, found only in a restricted range (even if abundant at some
locations), or because of other factors making it vulnerable to extinction or
elimination; typically 21–100 occurrences or between 3000 and 10,000 individuals.
G4 Apparently Secure - Uncommon but not rare (although it may be rare in parts
of its range, particularly on the periphery), and usually widespread. Apparently
not vulnerable in most of its range, but possibly cause for long-term
concern; typically more than 100 occurrences and more than 10,000 individuals.
G5 Secure - Common, widespread, and abundant (although it may be rare in
parts of its range, particularly on the periphery). Not vulnerable in most of its
range; typically with considerably more than 100 occurrences and more than
10,000 individuals.
GH Possibly Extinct - Known from only historical occurrences, but may nevertheless
still be extant; further searching needed.
GX Presumed Extinct - Believed to be extinct throughout its range. Not located
despite intensive searches of historical sites and other appropriate habitat,
and virtually no likelihood that it will be rediscovered.
G#G# Numeric range rank (with range no greater than 2); greater uncertainty about
a rank is expressed by indicating the full range of ranks which may be appropriate
(for example, a G1G3 rank indicates the rank could be G1, G2, or
G3).
T# Rank of subspecies or variety.
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Rank Description
State ranks
S1 Critically Imperiled - Critically imperiled in the state because of extreme
rarity or because of some factor(s) making it especially vulnerable to extirpation
from the state; typically 5 or fewer occurrences or very few remaining
individuals (less than 1000).
S2 Imperiled - Imperiled in the state because of rarity or because of some
factor(s) making it very vulnerable to extirpation from the state; typically
6–20 occurrences or few remaining individuals (1000–3000).
S3 Vulnerable - Vulnerable in the state either because rare and uncommon, or
found only in a restricted range (even if abundant at some locations), or because
of other factors making it vulnerable to extirpation; typically 21–100
occurrences or between 3000 and 10,000 individuals.
S4 Apparently Secure - Uncommon but not rare, and usually widespread in the
state. Possible cause of long-term concern. Usually more than 100 occurrences
and more than 10,000 individuals.
S5 Secure - Common, widespread, and abundant in the state. Essentially ineradicable
under present conditions; typically with considerably more than 100
occurrences and more than 10,000 individuals.
SH Historical - Species occurred historically in the state, and there is some expectation
that it may be rediscovered. Its presence may not have been verified
in the past 20 years.
S#S# Range Rank: A numeric range rank (e.g., S2S3) is used to indicate the range
of uncertainty about the exact status of the species. Ranges cannot skip more
than one rank.
Symbols related to global and state ranks
B Breeding populations
N Non-breeding populations
NR Not ranked; status has not yet been assessed.
Q Questionable taxonomy
? nexact numeric rank; a question mark added to a rank expresses an uncertainty
about the rank in the range of 1 (i.e., +/- 1 rank either way on the 1-5
scale).
Federal status
LE Listed as endangered.
LT Listed as threatened.
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Appendix 2. Rare plants and animals of Canaan Valley, WV. Symbols related to global and state ranks: B = breeding populations; N = nonbreeding
populations; NR = not ranked, status has not yet been assessed; Q = questionable taxonomy; ? = inexact numeric rank, a question
mark added to a rank expresses an uncertainty about the rank in the range of 1 (i.e., ± 1 rank either way on the 1–5 scale). Federal status:
LE = listed as endangered, LT = listed as threatened. Last record date refers to whether there has been a record of the species in the Valley
within the last 20 years (recent), or older than 20 years (historic).
State/global
Scientific name Common name rank Last record date
Wetlands
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. Balsam Fir S3/G5 Recent
Fraxinus nigra Marshall Black Ash S2S3/G5 Recent
Lycopodiella inundata (L.) Holub Bog Clubmoss S2?/G5 Recent
Viburnum opulus L. var. americanum Ait. Highbush Cranberry S1/G5T5 Recent
Salix discolor Muhl. Glaucous or Pussy Willow S2/G5 Recent
Rhamnus alnifolia L'Hér. Alder-leaved Buckthorn S1/G5 Recent
Equisetum sylvaticum L. Woodland Horsetail S1/G5 Recent
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb. ssp. groenlandica (Oeder) Fernald Goldthread S2/G5 Recent
Thelypteris simulata (Davenport) Nieuwl. Bog Fern S1/G4G5 Recent
Scirpus atrocinctus Fernald Black-girdle Bulrush S3/G5 Recent
S. microcarpus J. Presl & C. Presl Small-flowered Bulrush S3/G5 Recent
Carex projecta Mack. Necklace Sedge S3/G5 Recent
Carex bromoides Schkuhr ex Willd. spp. bromoides Brome-like Sedge S3/G5T5 Recent
Carex canescens L. ssp. canescens Hoary Sedge or Silver Sedge S3/G5 Recent
Carex pellita Muhl. Wooly Sedge S1/G5 Recent
Carex utriculata Boott Beaked Sedge S2/G5 Recent
Carex leptonervia (Fern.) Fern. Nerveless Woodland Sedge S2/G4 Recent
Carex lacustris Willd. Lakebank Sedge S2/G5 Recent
Carex comosa Boott Bristly Sedge S2/G5 Recent
Carex aestivalis M.A. Curtis ex Gray Summer Sedge S2/G4 Recent
Carex atherodes Spreng. Wheat Sedge or Awned Sedge S1/G5 Recent
Carex bushii Mack. Bush’s Sedge S2S3/G4 Recent
Carex normalis Mack. Larger Straw Sedge S3/G5 Recent
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State/global
Scientific name Common name rank Last record date
Juncus filiformis L. Thread Rush S2/G5 Recent
Glyceria grandis S. Watson var. grandis American Mannagrass S2/G5T5 Recent
G. laxa (Scribn.) Scribn. Northern Manngrass S1/G5 Recent
Torreyochloa pallida (Torr.) Church var. fernaldii Fernald’s False Mannagrass S2/G5T4Q Recent
(Hitchc.) Dore ex Koyama & Kawano
Zigadenus leimanthoides Gray Oceanorus or Bog Camas S2/G4Q Recent
Cypripedium reginae Walter Showy Lady’s-slipper S1/G4 Recent
Listera smallii Wiegand Kidney-Leaf Twayblade S2/G4 Recent
Pogonia ophioglossoides (L.) Ker Gawl. Rose Pogonia S2/G5 Recent
Dalibarda repens L. Star Violet or Robin Runaway S3/G5 Recent
Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton Large Cranberry S2/G4 Recent
Geum rivale L. Purple Avens S1/G5 Recent
Geum aleppicum Jacq. Yellow Avens S1/G5 Historic
Polemonium vanbruntiae Britton Jacob’s Ladder S2/G3G4 Recent
Saxifraga pensylvanica L. Swamp Saxifrage S2/G5 Recent
Veronica scutellata L. Marsh Speedwell S2/G5 Recent
Empidonax alnorum Brewster Alder Flycatcher S3B/G5 Recent
Upland Forests
Lonicera canadensis Bartram American Fly Honeysuckle S2/G5 Historic
Botrychium matricariifolium (A. Braun ex Dowell) Chamomile Grape-fern S2/G5 Historic
A. Braun ex W.D.J. Koch
Cornus canadensis L. Dwarf Dogwood S3/G5 Recent
Plethodon nettingi (Green) Cheat Mountain Salamander S2/G2G3 LT Recent
Accipiter gentilis (L.) Northern Goshawk S1B S1N/G5 Recent
Glaucomys sabrinus (Shaw) fuscus Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel S2/G5T2 LE Recent
Sylvilagus obscurus Chapman, Cramer, Dippenaar Appalachian Cottontail S2/G4 Recent
& Robinson
Certhia americana Bonaparte Brown Creeper S3B S4N/G5 Recent
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State/global
Scientific name Common name rank Last record date
Streamside/open habitat
Cuscuta rostrata Shuttlw. ex Engelm. and A. Gray Beaked Dodder S2/G4 Historic
Eupatorium pilosum Walter Vervain Thoroughwort S2/G5 Recent
Euphorbia purpurea (Raf.) Fernald Glade Spurge S2/G3 Recent
Stachys tenuifolia Willd. Smooth Hedge-nettle S3/G5 Recent
Hasteola suaveolens (L.) Pojark Sweet-scented Indian-plantain S3/G4 Recent
Viola appalachiensis Henry Appalachian Blue Violet S2S3/G3 Recent
Circus cyanus (L.) Northern Harrier S1B S3N/G5 Historic
Seiurus noveboracensis (Gmelin) Northern Waterthrush S2B/G5 Recent
Vermivora ruficapilla (Wilson) Nashville Warbler S1B/G5 Recent
Dolichonyx oryzivorus (L.) Bobolink S2B/G5 Recent
Pooecetes gramineus (Gmelin) Vesper Sparrow S3B S2N/G5 Recent
Neotoma magister Baird Allegheny Woodrat S3/G3G4 Recent
Sorex hoyi winnemana (Preble) Southern Pygmy Shrew S2S3/G5T4 Recent
Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann) Meadow Jumping Mouse S3/G5 Recent
Aquatic
Clinostoma elongatus (J.P. Kirtland) Redside Dace S1S2/G3G4 Recent
Hypentelium nigricans (LeSueur) Northern Hog Sucker S5/G5 Extirpated in Valley?
Nocomis micropogon (Cope) River Chub S5/G5 Extirpated in Valley?
Etheostoma flabellare Rafinesque Fantail Darter S5/G5 Extirpated in Valley?
Percina maculata (Girard) Blackside Darter S5/G5 Extirpated in Valley?
Uncommon birds that may breed in the Valley
Botaurus lentiginosus (Rackett) American Bittern S1B,S1N/G4 Unknown
Accipiter striatus Vieillot Sharp-shinned Hawk S3B S4N/G5 Unknown
A. cooperii (Bonaparte) Cooper’s Hawk S3B S4N/G5 Unknown
Actitis macularius (L.) Spotted Sandpiper S3B/G5 Unknown
Gallinago gallinago (L.) Common Snipe S3B S3N/G5 Unknown
Tyto alba (Scopoli) Barn Owl S2B,S2N/G5 Unknown
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State/global
Scientific name Common name rank Last record date
Eremophila alpestris (L.) Horned Lark 2B,S3N/G5 Unknown
Vermivora chrysoptera (L.) Golden-winged Warbler S2B/G4 Unknown
Setophaga coronata (L.) Yellow-rumped Warbler S1S2B S4N/G5 Unknown
Ammodramus savannarum (Gmelin) Grasshopper Sparrow S3B/G5 Unknown