Episodic Flooding of The Ouachita River:
Levee-mediated Mortality of Trees and Saplings in a
Bottomland Hardwood Restoration Area
Matthew L. Reid and Joydeep Bhattacharjee
Southeastern Naturalist, Volume 13, Issue 3 (2014): 493–505
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22001144 SOUTHEASTERN NATURALIST 1V3o(3l.) :1439,3 N–5o0. 53
Episodic Flooding of The Ouachita River:
Levee-mediated Mortality of Trees and Saplings in a
Bottomland Hardwood Restoration Area
Matthew L. Reid1 and Joydeep Bhattacharjee2,*
Abstract - The Mollicy Farms Unit of Upper Ouachita National Wildlife Refuge, LA, consists
of former agricultural land replanted with traditional bottomland hardwood species.
Much of it is surrounded by a containment levee built to hold back the annual floodwaters
of the Ouachita River. In 2009, two extreme floods, with water levels over 4 m above the
flood stage, breached the levee, leaving the area inside the levee inundated for an extended
period of time. We investigated the mortality of trees and saplings following these floods.
During the initial reforestation efforts, which began in 1998, trees were planted both inside
and outside the levee, allowing us to compare tree and sapling mortality based on location,
inside or outside the levee. The average mortality of all trees was 40.59%, and the average
mortality of all saplings was 48.23%. Both tree and sapling mortality resulted from a significant
interaction between elevation and location inside or outside the levee. Overall, results
indicated increased mortality at lower elevations for the area inside the levee. Outside the
levee, mortality was unaffected by elevation because floodwaters were able to recede naturally.
Levee removal would restore a more traditional flooding regime, likely reducing tree
and sapling mortality during future floods.
Introduction
Bottomland hardwood forests are deciduous forested wetlands found in broad
floodplain areas that border river systems (Louisiana Natural Heritage Program
2009). These forested wetlands occur throughout the central and southeastern US
(Hodges 1997). Riverine floodplains, which include bottomland hardwood forests,
provide diverse ecosystem services, including disturbance regulation, waste filtration,
and water supply and regulation (Brauman et al. 2007, Costanza et al. 1997,
The Nature Conservancy 1992). They also provide productive habitat for a variety
of wildlife species (The Nature Conservancy 1992, Taylor et al. 1990, Tiner 1984).
Each of these ecological services is maintained by a natural flood regime and the
floodplain hydrology of these forests.
Bottomland hardwood forests are characterized by a hydrologic regime of alternating
wet and dry cycles, which are driven by changes in water level of the
associated river system, and from changes in groundwater levels (Wharton et al.
1982). During periods of heavy rainfall or spring snowmelt, rivers overtop their
banks and floodwaters spill into floodplains. The flood pulse from river discharge
is the major force controlling the biota in the riverine floodplains (Junk et al. 1989).
1Department of Biology, University of Louisville, KY 40292. 2Plant Ecology Laboratory,
Department of Biology, University of Louisiana, Monroe, LA 71209. *Corresponding author
- joydeep@ulm.edu.
Manuscript Editor: Roger D. Applegate
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Flood pulses deposit dissolved nutrients, organic matter, and fertile sediment into the
floodplain. Further, hydrology influences most processes in bottomland hardwood
forests, including seed dispersal (Nilsson et al. 1991; Schneider and Sharitz 1986,
1988), seed germination (Middleton 2000), growth (Harms et al. 1980, Reily and
Johnson 1982, Wallace et al. 1996, Young et al. 1995), and survival of mature trees
(Jones et al. 1994, Keeland et al. 1997), all of which affect the overall species composition
in these plant communities (Hook 1984, Tanner 1986, Wharton et al. 1982).
Bottomland hardwood forests are predominately flat, but because of the nature
of flooding and sedimentation patterns, small changes in elevation result in considerable
differences in soil drainage and vegetation distribution (Reid 2013, Tanner
1986). It is estimated that prior to European settlement, the extent of bottomland
hardwood forests in the Lower Mississippi Alluvial Valley (LMAV) was 8–10 million
ha. By 1979, approximately 2 million ha remained (MacDonald et al. 1979).
Conversion to agriculture (primarily soybeans) was responsible for as much as 96%
of the loss of bottomland hardwood forests in the LMAV (MacDonald et al. 1979,
Newling 1990).
Extensive conversion of bottomland hardwood forests to cultivation can be
attributed to the rich agricultural potential of the forested wetlands in the LMAV
(Tobin 1995). The LMAV has rich soils that are supplemented annually by alluvial
deposits during flooding events (Hodges 1997); this enrichment leads to rapid
growth rates and overall high productivity of the associated vegetation (Newling
1990). Annual flooding of the LMAV was a hindrance to farming operations, which
prompted many farmers to build levees around their agricultural lands to protect
them from flooding. Catastrophic flooding in the early 20th century resulted in the
Flood Control Acts, which called for the construction of additional levees (Tobin
1995). These levees altered the hydrology of the bottomland hardwood forest
systems and allowed for the conversion of more bottomland hardwood forest to
agricultural land (Newling 1990).
Louisiana has experienced a 50–75% decline of bottomland hardwood forest
(Lester et al. 2005) since European settlement, which can mainly be attributed to
conversion for agricultural production and alteration of traditional floodplain hydrology
(US Fish and Wildlife Service 2008). In addition to the destruction of the
forests, Louisiana floodplains have also been altered through the construction of
impoundments, levees and canals, and the channelization and dredging of rivers
(Gergel et al. 2002), leaving most floodplain forests hydrologically cut off from the
river (Opperman et al. 2010). In recognition of the severe decline of these floodplain
forests along the Mississippi River, Creasman et al. (1992) declared that the
bottomland hardwood forest is an ecosystem in crisis.
In the late 1970s, widespread abandonment of agricultural land provided opportunities
for bottomland hardwood forest restoration. The US Fish and Wildlife
Service (USFWS) and other federal agencies, various state agencies, The Nature
Conservancy (TNC), and other organizations began getting involved in restoration
efforts. From 1985 to 1995, approximately 75,000 ha of former agricultural land
were reforested in the LMAV and another 108,000 ha were proposed for reforestation
through 2005 (Allen 1997, Stanturf et al. 2000). Restoration efforts are
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currently underway throughout the southeastern US; Louisiana has undertaken one
of the largest bottomland-hardwood reforestation efforts in the nation (Opperman
et al. 2010, Weber et al. 2012).
The inclusion of hydrological restoration is critical to riparian restoration
projects because flooding regimes are essential to the proper functioning of these
systems (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006, Seavy et al. 2009). However, severe flooding
events can have a negative impact on the system. Holland and Burk (2000) reported
tree mortality of over 30% in a floodplain forest in Massachusetts following catastrophic
flooding of the Connecticut River. Extreme flooding can lead to elevated
tree mortality in riparian forest systems (Acker et al. 2003, Demasceno et al. 2009).
The primary objective of this study was to assess the mortality of trees and saplings
in a bottomland hardwood restoration area in northeastern Louisiana following
severe flooding of the Ouachita River in 2009. We conducted vegetation sampling
simultaneously in a reforested area surrounded by a containment levee and a reforested
area located in the natural floodplain of the river. A secondary objective was to
compare mortality between the two sampling areas and among species.
Materials and Methods
Study area
We conducted our research at the Mollicy Farms Unit portion of Upper Ouachita
National Wildlife Refuge (Upper Ouachita NWR). The Mollicy Farms Unit is
located in Morehouse Parish, approximately 48 km north of Monroe, LA, and
includes all areas of Upper Ouachita NWR east of the Ouachita River (Fig. 1).
The study site contains approximately 6500 ha of current and former agricultural
land; ~27 km of levee were built to protect ~5500 ha of land from Ouachita River
flooding (Weber et al. 2012). The remaining 1000 ha of the Mollicy Farms Unit,
including reforested areas, are outside the containment levee. The range of elevation
of the site is approximately 17 m–23 m, excluding the levee, which averages
about 9 m high (Weber et al. 2012)
The USFWS acquired the Mollicy Farms Unit in 1997 and has since replanted
more than 4400 ha with more than 3 million trees using species characteristic of
bottomland hardwood forests, making this one of the largest bottomland-hardwood
restoration efforts in the nation (Opperman et al. 2010, Weber et al. 2012).
The tree species planted in the Mollicy Farms Unit include Fraxinus pennsylvanica
Marshall (Green Ash), Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich (Bald Cypress),
Liquidambar styraciflua L. (Sweetgum), Carya aquatica (Michx. F.) (Water
Hickory), and various Quercus spp. (oaks), including Q. phellos L. (Willow
Oak), Q. lyrata Walter (Overcup Oak), and Q. texana Buckley (Texas Red Oak).
Additionally, Q. nigra L. (Water Oak) and Celtis laevigata Willd. (Sugarberry)
were planted, but in very small numbers (Gypsy Hanks, USFWS, Monroe, LA,
pers. comm.). Plant nomenclature follows USDA-NRCS (2010). There was some
initial seedling mortality in the first few years after planting (1999–2000), with
no substantial mortality occurring since approximately 2003 (Dan Weber, TNC,
Monroe, LA, pers. comm.).
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Extreme water volume and sustained flooding of the Ouachita River during 2009
caused the levee to breach naturally on 24 May. After the levee broke, water rushed
into the floodplain, and several low-lying portions of the site were inundated to
Figure 1. Map of Upper Ouachita National Wildlife Refuge, LA, showing sampling locations
inside and outside the containment levee. Inset shows the location within the state.
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a depth of 18 m (Ferber 2010). Following this initial flood in spring 2009, a second
round of intense flooding ensued, lasting from October 2009 to March 2010
(Fig. 2). During this period, the entire Mollicy Farms Unit was flooded and major
parts of it remained inundated for about 4–5 months.
Experimental design
Because our experiment took advantage of natural conditions, we had no control
of the time, duration or intensity of the flood of the Ouachita River. The experiment
began following the recession of floodwaters. During the summer of 2010, we
sampled the Mollicy Farms Unit, located in the floodplain of the Ouachita River.
Specifically, we sampled 2 areas: one inside the breached containment levee and
the other outside the levee. Both areas were replanted in 1999 and 2000, and each
is ~1000 ha. We set up sampling plots in a grid, with plots stratified throughout
the study areas, and uploaded coordinates of plot centers for all sampling plots to
a GPS (Magellan®), which we used to help us find the plots in the field. We chose
plot locations a priori to remove any bias in plot establishment. We established a
total of fifty-three 10-m-radius circular sampling plots, covering an area of 16,642
m2 along the floodplain. This included an area of 8478 m2 (27 plots) sampled inside
the levee, and an area of 8164 m 2 (26 plots) sampled outside the levee.
Figure 2. Graph of the Ouachita River level during the flooding events of 2009 and 2010.
The horizontal dotted line represents the flood stage of the river. The horizontal dashed
line represents the record high flood stage. The vertical dashed line indicates the date the
floodwaters breached the levee surrounding the Mollicy Farms Uni t.
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To evaluate any differences in elevation, we obtained detailed data from digital
elevation models (DEM) based on LIDAR images of the site (LSU 2009). DEMbased
elevation models are often used in restoration assessments in a variety of
wetland settings (i.e., Kupfer et al. 2010, Millard et al. 2013). Elevation of the
sampling areas inside and outside the levee ranged from 18.5 m to 22.2 m and 18.9
m to 21.4 m, respectively.
Sampling procedure
We counted all stems within each plot and classified stems with a diameter at
breast height (dbh; measured 1.37 m from the ground) ≥10 cm as trees, and stems
with a dbh less than 10 cm as saplings. For each tree or sapling, we recorded the species
and whether the tree or sapling was dead or alive. Because of the inherent difficulty
of accurately identifying dead oaks to the species level, we grouped all oaks
as Quercus for analyses. We excluded newly recruited tree seedlings (less than 30 cm tall)
from the sample because these seedlings likely established after the flooding events,
thereby avoiding inaccuracy in estimating flood-caused mortality. Data regarding
pre-flood tree numbers were not available because no prior efforts had been made
to assess the reforestation efforts at the Mollicy Farms Unit by any of the agencies
involved. Although there was initial mortality of some of the newly planted tree
seedlings, refuge managers have informed us that no substantial mortality had been
documented since approximately 2003 (Dan Weber, TNC, pers. comm.).
Statistical analyses
We analyzed these data using a one-factor logistic model with a covariate. For
each sampling plot, we coded the number of living and dead trees. Location (inside
or outside the levee) was the factor tested, with plot elevation included as the
covariate. We specified use of quasi-binomial distribution (logit link) to correct for
significant over-dispersion in the data. We analyzed significant interactions using
linear contrasts and repeated the analysis for sapling data. Differences in mortality
among species and the diversity of naturally regenerating species between sites
were evaluated using descriptive statistics. Analyses were carried out using R v.
3.0.2 (R Core Team 2013).
Results
Tree mortality
The average mortality of all trees was 40.59%. The logistic model of tree mortality
indicated a significant interaction between location and elevation (P = 0.011;
Table 1). We examined this interaction by using contrasts. The slope of the logit line
for the sampling locations inside the levee was 2.22, indicating that tree mortality
was significantly higher at lower elevations (P = 0.004). In contrast, the slope of the
logit line for the sampling locations outside the levee was not significantly different
from zero (P = 0.932), indicating no effect of elevation on tree mortality outside the
levee (Table 1).
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Sapling mortality
The average mortality of all saplings was 48.23%. The logistic model of sapling
mortality indicated a significant interaction between location and elevation (P =
0.021; Table 2). We again used contrasts to understand the interaction. The slope of
the logit line for the sampling locations inside the levee was 0.65, indicating that
sapling mortality was marginally higher at lower elevations (P = 0.067). The slope
of the logit line for the sampling locations outside the levee was not significantly
different from zero (P = 0.466), indicating no effect of elevation on sapling mortality
outside the levee (Table 2).
Mortality by species
To analyze differences in mortality among species, we combined trees and saplings
for analyses (Table 3). The 3 most commonly sampled species found in both
sampling locations were oaks, Green Ash, and Bald Cypress. Of the species that
were planted, oaks had the highest overall mortality inside and outside the levee
Table 2. Results of logistic regression model of sapling mortality as a function of location and elevation,
with results of the contrasts on the significant interacti on term.
Parameter Scaled deviance P Slope P
Location 5.7281 0.017 - -
Elevation 4.8405 0.029 - -
Location:Elevation 5.2930 0.021 - -
Elevation | Inside levee - - 0.6519 0.067
Elevation | Outside levee - - -0.3680 0.466
Table 1. Results of logistic regression model of tree mortality as a function of location and elevation,
with results of the contrasts on the significant interaction ter m.
Parameter Scaled deviance P Slope P
Location 6.8705 0.009 - -
Elevation 18.0128 less than 0.001 - -
Location:Elevation 6.3616 0.012 - -
Elevation | Inside levee - - 2.2214 0.004
Elevation | Outside levee - - -0.2277 0.933
Table 3. Mortality among select species based on location inside or outside the levee. For status, PL
= planted and NR = naturally regenerating. The number of trees and saplings sampled (n) is included
in parentheses.
Species Status Combined Inside levee Outside levee
Diospyros virginiana NR 16.0% (81) 0.0% (7) 17.6% (74)
Fraxinus pennsylvanica PL 40.0% (98) 28.3% (53) 53.3% (45)
Ilex decidua NR 21.2% (47) - 21.2% (47)
Nyssa sylvatica NR 33.3% (33) - 33.3% (33)
Pinus taeda NR 71.1% (38) 68.6% (35) 100.0% (3)
Quercus spp. PL 70.3% (573) 56.5% (246) 80.7% (327)
Taxodium distichum PL 17.7% (62) 28.2% (39) 0.0% (23)
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combined, at 70.3%. Both oaks and Green Ash had higher mortality outside the
levee than inside the levee. Bald Cypress had 28.2% mortality inside the levee and
0% mortality outside (Table 3).
We observed Pinus taeda L. (Loblolly Pine), a species not typically associated
with floodplain forests, to be regenerating in both sampling locations, though most
of the regeneration was inside the levee. Mortality of Loblolly Pine trees and saplings
inside the levee was 68.6%. We sampled only 3 Loblolly Pines outside the
levee, all of which were dead. Most of the naturally regenerating species had lower
overall mortality than the planted species. Only Nyssa sylvatica Marshall (Blackgum),
Ilex decidua Walter (Possumhaw), and Diospyros virginiana L. (Common
Persimmon) experienced high mortality outside the levee at 33.3%, 21.2%, and
17.6% respectively (Table 3). Mortality was less than 10% for all other species
regenerating outside the levee.
Natural regeneration
We calculated richness (S) of naturally regenerating species (species not planted
during reforestation efforts) for both sampling areas. The plots outside the levee
(S =11) had greater richness of naturally regenerating species than the plots inside
the levee (S = 4). Total abundance of naturally regenerating species was also lower
inside the levee than outside of it: 16 and 31trees; 28 and 490 saplings, repectively.
Discussion
Severe flooding for a prolonged period during the growing season resulted in
heavy mortality of well-established trees in the floodplain of the Ouachita River.
Other studies that have evaluated mortality following severe flooding report similar
findings. However, tree and sapling mortality values from this study are higher
than those reported elsewhere (Acker et al. 2003, Damasceno et al. 2009, Holland
and Burk 2000), and we attribute this to the magnitude and the intensity of the
flooding event of the Ouachita River. Overall, trees and saplings had significantly
lower mortality in the sampling location outside the levee. The levee that surrounds
the Mollicy Farms Unit has been known to trap water inside during periods
of heavy rain or river flooding (Ferber 2010). For this reason, farming was often
unsuccessful in the area. During the floods of 2009–2010,
the levee was breached
and floodwater rushed into the floodplain. As the water level of the Ouachita River
dropped, floodwaters were able to recede in the areas not surrounded by the containment
levee. However, the levee that surrounds much of the Mollicy Farms Unit
prevented the recession of the floodwaters in those areas, leaving the area inside the
levee inundated for a longer period of time, as is often the case when levee breaches
occur (Tobin 1995). The sampling area outside the levee was part of the original
floodplain of the Ouachita River and experienced the river’s more traditional hydrologic
regime. The area inside the levee was subjected to an altered hydrologic
regime because the levee imposed barriers to the recession of floodwaters. While
controlled flooding has been shown to be beneficial to natural seedling recruitment,
especially in the riparian systems of large rivers (Bhattacharjee et al. 2006), the
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increased period of inundation of the site during the growing season likely resulted
in greater physiological stress due to waterlogging and anaerobic soil conditions
(Kozlowski 2002), which would explain the higher mortality of trees and saplings
inside the levee.
Our analyses indicated a significant interaction between location and elevation
on the mortality of both trees and saplings. Trees and saplings at lower elevations
had higher mortality than those at higher elevations inside the levee, but there was
no relationship between mortality and elevation for either trees or saplings outside
the levee. Inside the levee, areas at lower elevations were exposed to a longer duration
of flooding than those at higher elevations. This situation would have resulted
in greater stress for trees and saplings at lower elevations, contributing to their
higher mortality.
Mortality analyses by species indicated that oaks and Green Ash had high
mortality both inside and outside the levee. Bald Cypress, which has a naturally
higher flood tolerance than any other species planted at the Mollicy Farms Unit
(Hook 1984), had relatively low mortality inside the levee and no observed mortality
outside the levee. The high mortality of most of the planted species in both
locations could also be attributed to a lack of proper species–site matching when
planting trees (Stanturf et al. 2001) because hydrology limits species to certain sites
in bottomland floodplains (Hook 1984, Tanner 1986). In bottomland hardwood
forests, it is not unusual to see marked vegetation changes in response to elevation
differences of less than 1 m within a 1-ha area (Jones et al. 1994, Wharton et al.
1982). The high mortality of Green Ash and oaks in both sampling locations seems
to indicate that these species may not have been matched to the proper sites for
planting. For example, some species of oak such as Overcup Oak are moderately
tolerant of flooding, but other oaks such as Willow Oak are less tolerant of flooding
(Burns and Honkala 1991, Hook 1984). Thus, it is possible that many of the planted
oaks included species not sufficiently tolerant of flooding to warrant planting in a
flood-prone area. However, it is also possible that the flood intensity and duration
would have caused high mortality of the planted species, regardless of the effects
of site–species matching.
Most of the naturally regenerating species had reduced mortality, with regeneration
occurring mainly outside the levee. The lack of natural regeneration inside the
levee could also be attributed to the levee because it prevented annual floodwaters
access to the floodplain, effectively eliminating hydrochory, which is an important
mechanism for bottomland hardwood forest regeneration (Schneider and Sharitz
1986, 1988). We did not test this explicitly, but our data clearly indicate lower richness
of naturally regenerating species inside the levee, and richness is often limited
by seed dispersal (Myers and Harms 2009).
Based on the results of this study and supporting evidence, we can speculate that
if the levee were removed, the portion of the Mollicy Farms Unit currently inside
the levee would experience a flooding regime similar to the area outside the levee.
This likely would result in reduced tree and sapling mortality during subsequent
flooding events because, at our study site, the area exposed to the more traditional
hydrologic regime had lower average mortality.
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It should be noted that we sampled within two large reforested stands (approximately
1000 ha each) separated by a levee. Thus, we are not able to draw inferences
regarding other bottomland restoration areas. However, given the similar nature
of the reforested areas in this study, it is likely that differences between stands are
greatly influenced by the levee. Additionally, given the relative paucity of treemortality
data in response to severe flooding, it is important to utilize available data
to identify trends in tree mortality and suggest management practices to maintain
these riparian systems.
Overall, our results indicate significantly higher mortality of trees and saplings
inside the levee than outside following the extreme floods that occurred during
2009 and 2010. By comparing locations that were similar in most regards, other
than the presence of the levee, we found that the differential mortality between
the two areas is likely attributable to the presence of the levee. Although flooding
events can seldom be predicted, more studies should be conducted to assess the
ecological impacts of containment levees, whenever any such opportunity arises.
With many thousands of kilometers of levees in the Mississippi River basin (Tobin
1995), there are ample opportunities to further address the effects of levees on reforested
bottomland systems throughout the region. The increasing reforestation efforts
in the LMAV and the potential for increasing frequency of severe floods (Milly
et al. 2002, Palmer et al. 2008) necessitate a better understanding of the patterns of
tree mortality following severe floods in bottomlands.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this project was provided by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
Gypsy Hanks of USFWS provided information about the tree species planted in the study
area. Dan Weber of TNC provided information on seedling mortality following initial planting.
Sean Chenoweth helped obtain elevation data from LIDAR images of the site. Charles
Battaglia helped create the map. We thank Alex Fotis and Sarah Rhoads for assistance collecting
data in the field.
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