Urban Naturalist Spatial Arrangement and Potential Detrimental Effects of Nassella tenuissima on an Urban Remnant Shortgrass Prairie in West Texas Juan G. García-Cancel1,2* and Robert D. Cox2 Abstract: We investigated the spatial distribution of Nassella tenuissima, an invasive grass, in an urban native remnant shortgrass prairie, as well as its effects on a native grass species, Bouteloua gracilis, in a glasshouse setting. We first mapped populations in a native prairie remnant to determine spatial distributions of adult N. tenuissima clumps, and detected a high level of aggregation in the field. We then set up an additive competition experiment to determine at which density N. tenuissima influences growth and nitrogen allocation of native grass seedlings. Higher N. tenuissima density had a detrimental effect on growth for B. gracilis seedlings, while B. gracilis had higher biomass and nitrogen accumulation with no N. tenuissima present. Our results suggest that the effects of invasive grasses can start with very low numbers in early life stages in the field. Management and control of these should be done sooner rather than later when density increases with more propagule rain. In urban settings, N. tenuissima may rapidly invade native prairie remnants, and could significantly alter biodiversity and ecosystem attributes. Introduction Terrestrial ecosystems around the planet are experiencing shifts in species assemblages due to human activity, including both introductions of non-native species (DiTomaso et al. 2017, Kreyling et al. 2011, Lockwood et al. 2007) and anthropogenic climate change (Vitousek et al. 1997). Species that are transported by humans and are able to survive and reproduce in their new systems could potentially become invasive if their environmental impacts are on a large scale and affect human economic or cultural activities (Lockwood et al. 2008). Plants in particular can be inconspicuous when initially introduced and only once they have increased does their effect on the ecosystem become noticeable (Crooks 2005), and perhaps nearly irreversible (Evans et al., 2017). Invasive species can affect native species through multiple pathways; including through soil nutrient dynamics, competition, shading effects, or by direct competition for soil resources due to their extensive root system (García-Cancel and Thaxton 2018, Ibarra-Flores et al. 1999, Parkinson et al. 2013, Rojas-Sandoval and Meléndez-Ackerman 2012). Some invasive plants can alter the dynamics in ecosystems by exerting indirect competition pressures with native plants by deterring herbivory on their tissues, forcing herbivores to eat more palatable plants (Mapaura et al. 2020). The spatial arrangement of plants in a landscape can also accentuate the effects they might have on other local plants by monopolizing resources (Archer et al. 2017), or by providing valuable aid at key life stages (García-Cancel and Thaxton 2018, Padilla and Pugnaire 2006). Therefore, spatial arrangement of plant populations can show past his- 1Department of Environmental Science, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras, Puerto Rico, U. S. A. 00925-2537 00939 (ORCID 0009-0007-8033-8931) 2Department of Natural Resources Management, Davis Agricultural College, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, U. S. A.79409 *Corresponding author: j.garcia.cancel@gmail.com Associate Editor: Sonja Knapp, Helmholtz Centre for Environment al Research–UFZ Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 2 torical trends in propagule arrival and spread (Seabloom et al. 2006). Even geographically restricted native plants could be released from their constraints and become invasive in introduced regions if the biological barriers such as mountains, oceans or deserts are bypassed (Seabloom et al. 2006, Vilà and D’Antonio 1998). The same can happen when disturbance regimes have been altered and have weakened the native species pool, making them susceptible to invasion (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, Suding et al. 2004), including in grasslands (Seabloom et al. 2013). Dispersal of non-native plants from urban centers is a common occurrence (Beaury et al. 2021, Veldman and Putz 2010) that has accelerated the rate of biodiversity loss and breakdown of ecosystem services globally (Suding et al. 2004). Some have argued that urban green spaces can act as ecosystem service providers in lieu of native robust ecosystems by providing services e.g. nectar providers (Yessoufou 2023); or sources of adaptability to changed local soil conditions (Honfi et al. 2023). Others have found that urban green places can act as reservoirs and sources of ornamental, potentially invasive plant species capable of spreading into nearby native areas (Knapp et al. 2012, Reichard and White 2001, Shah et al. 2025). Nassella tenuissima (Trin.) Barkworth (Mexican feathergrass) is an invasive grass in the Southern High Plains of the continental United States, but native to the arid Trans Pecos region of Texas, northern Mexico and southeastern New Mexico, with some populations in southern South America (Humphries and Florentine 2021, Jacobs et al. 1998). It has been introduced in several locations as an ornamental plant (Fig. 1), and it has been observed to remain in the seedbank up to 7 years or longer after removal of adult plants (Moran et al. 2018). In environments with more water availability, such as in urban land- Figure 1. Native locations of N. tenuissima in TX (blue counties) and known locations (green circles) of N. tenuissima in the state of Texas as of April 21, 2021. (QGIS geographic information system). Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 3 scaping, this grass can spread rapidly to nearby ecosystems due to its high seed output (Humphries and Florentine 2021, Moran et al. 2018, Russell and Rector 2016). Bouteloua gracilis (Kunth) Lag. ex Griffiths (Blue grama), (syn. Chondrosum gracile) is a C4 warm-season perennial caespitose grass located mainly in the North American shortgrass prairies (Anderson 2003, Wynia 2007). The species has a wide range in the North American Central Plains, from south Canadian prairies (Wilson and Pärtel 2003) to northern Mexico (Anderson 2003). The broader genus has a Pan-American distribution, with 57 described species (Siquieros-Delgado 2007). B. gracilis is a fast-reproducing grass, able to reproduce asexually by stolons and sexually by outcrossing wind-pollination and wind dispersed seeds (Anderson 2003). Its foliage has a high nutrient content which is favored by livestock (Melgoza-Castillo et al. 2014), and it is readily used in restoration efforts due to easy germination rates (Bakker et al. 2003). B. gracilis has the ability to suppress some invasive grass species with its high germination rates occupying available space (Wilson and Pärtel 2003). On that regard it has also been documented to have a strong ability to extract soil moisture by the profuse root system of adult plants (Dormaar et al. 1994), though in some studies B. gracilis did not rapidly spread in highly disturbed sites with the presence of other competitive perennials (Samuel and Hart 1994). The early effects of N. tenuissima invasion in a remnant shortgrass prairie embedded in an urban matrix have not been studied. To study the spatial patterns that such an invasive might have, we carried out a field study to determine the presence and spatial patterns of N. tenuissima plants in the remnant rangeland in an urban matrix. We hypothesized that N. tenuissima clumps will be clustered instead of being randomly distributed and that their densities will be higher than randomly expected. We also conducted a greenhouse competition experiment with N. tenuissima and the native shortgrass prairie grass Bouteloua gracilis. We hypothesized that increasing density of N. tenuissima would impact biomass production and nitrogen tissue allocation in B. gracilis individuals. Methods Experimental design: Field study We studied the spatial distribution of N. tenuissima in a 160-acre remnant shortgrass prairie (33˚ 36’9.36” N, -101˚ 54’ 2.52” W) managed by the Department of Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, in Lubbock, TX (Fig. 1). The presence of N. tenuissima had been observed as early as 2014. We established 25 parallel transects, measuring around 700 m long and 3 m wide, 30 m apart. A positive sighing of a Mexican feathergrass clump would be recorded by a geotagged photograph along these transects during the days of May 15–16, 2019 and June 24–25, 2019. We then used Point Density Analysis as part of the Density Analysis toolbox from ArcGIS (Esri©) to produce Average Nearest Neighbor between grass clumps to determine if there was a clustering of the plants and a High/Low Clustering (Getis-Ord General G) to determine the likelihood that the cluster pattern could be the result of random chance (Getis and Ord 1992, Mitchell 20 05). Experimental design: Glasshouse We carried out addition competition experiments in the TTU glasshouses in Lubbock, TX, USA (33° 35’ 3.066” N, 101° 53’ 13.1199” W) with seedlings of N. tenuissima and B. gracilis. We used seeds collected from adult N. tenuissima from the remnant shortgrass prairie administered by the Department of Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, in the Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 4 summer of 2021. Seeds were rinsed with a 10 % chlorine bleach solution to limit the occurrence of phytopathogenic fungi and bacteria and seeded for the experiment in Spring 2022. For the native component of this experiment, we chose B. gracilis due to its widespread distribution and importance for shortgrass prairie ecosystems in North America (Melgoza-Castillo et al. 2014), in addition to its easy availability from commercial vendors. To that end, B. gracilis seeds for this study were purchased from Bamert Seed Company, Muleshoe, TX. We designed an experimental additive design, with the target species being B. gracilis and the subsequent addition of N. tenuissima in increasing numbers. Seeds from both species were germinated in sterile greenhouse soil media (BM6 All-Purpose Optimal Porosity Mix, Incubated pH = 5.4–6.2 Berger ©) in Spring 2022 in controlled greenhouse conditions at 25° C. Once germinated, seedlings were randomly assigned into five replicates of six treatments ranging from 0–5 N. tenuissima per pot. Each pot was a 2-gallon (7.5 L) nursery pot (19D x 24.63W x 20.63H cm) and had a single B. gracilis individual and 0–5 individuals of N. tenuissima. All pots were watered to saturation (on average 511.6 mL per 5 seconds) once a week and allowed to dry between waterings. Gibson et al. (1999) warned about the use of additive designs in greenhouse conditions, as researchers focus on harvest end data and not other factors that might be at play in the plant dynamics; such as the interactions of shoot and roots and their relation to plant species performance. We mitigated this by collecting data on available soil moisture using gravimetric soil moisture measurements, and biomass growth output at the time of harvest, with distinction for above and below ground organs and nutrient allocation in selected experiments. Biomass samples were weighed after harvest before being oven dried, and weighed a second time to estimate dry weights of the plant matter. All biomass measurements were analyzed using one-way ANOVA using the program Infostat© (DiRienzo et al. 2008). Fixed factors were species identity and invasive plant density as categorical data, while the dependent variables were wet and dry biomass production and above and below ground maximum length of the native seedlings. Biomass was weighed with a Mettler Toledo AL104 Balance and a standard measuring tape was used for measuring maximum length above ground as well below ground. After harvest, plant matter was oven dried at 55.5 °C (~140 °F) for a period of 3 weeks and ground to 2 mm mesh size using a Wiley Mill for larger samples and smaller (< 0.5 mm) mesh size for smaller samples. For the tissue allocation of nitrogen under the treatments, we selected plants from four treatments, these being Treatment #0, #1, #3, and #5 to determine if increasing density of invasive grass also affected nitrogen deposition in above and below ground tissues. If ground samples were too large, they were further processed in the laboratory by freezing with liquid nitrogen and grinding with mortar and pestle before being rolled in tin foil and analyzed in an elemental analyzer (Costech-4010; Costech Analytical, Valencia, CA, USA). Spectral graphs from the combusted samples were produced, as well as data from the available percent nitrogen found in the analyzed samples. These data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA using the program Infostat© (Di Rienzo et al. 201 1). The fixed factor was invasive plant density , while the dependent variables were biomass production of target native seedlings and nitrogen percentages in tissue samples. Ad hoc differences were analyzed using Tukey test. Results Field study We found that N. tenuissima occupies large tracts of the 160-acre remnant prairie (Fig. 2), with a nearest neighbor ratio of 0.16 clump/m2 (z-score = -51.6811, p-value = 0.00). Expected mean distance was 211.48 m, but observed mean distance was 34.49 m. The High/ Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 5 Figure 2. Point Density Map of known N. tenuissima clumps in the TTU Rangeland in June 2019. Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 6 Low Clustering (Geris-Ord General G) analysis showed a High-cluster spatial pattern (Observed General G = 0.02, z-score = 10.40, p-value < 0.01; Fig 2). Greenhouse Increased N. tenuissima plant density reduced biomass production for B. gracilis roots, but not for shoot biomass (Table 1). Soil water content was not statistically different between treatments (x̄ = 1.33, SE = 0.46, F = 1.28, df = 5, p = 0.31), and the presence of this invasive grass did not result in any difference in organ length. However, root biomass was significantly different between treatments (Table 1). Treatment #0 had significantly more root biomass (Fig. 3) compared to any other treatment. The presence of N. tenuissima did not affect B. gracilis shoot biomass (Table 1). Nitrogen content was statistically different between treatments for below ground samples, with highest nitrogen content in Treatment #0, but not for aboveground samples (Table 2). Discussion Spatial arrangement of the N. tenuissima clumps was highly clustered, implying that dispersal is limited, but the patches they colonize have a pronounced thatch formation. Mexican feathergrass thatch is problematic, being highly fibrous and resistant to degradation (Moretto et al. 2001), which could impose a limitation to native seed germination or emergence due the physical barrier imposed by the new thatch layer. Such barriers have been noted in other study systems (Evans et al. 2017). Future studies could well explore if the same barriers are present in the TTU Rangeland in Lubbock, TX. N. tenuissima has been observed to easily expand once escaped from cultivation (Moran et al. 2018) and create dense patches (Fig. 2), which we now confirm has some effects in native plant growth and its nutritional potential of native plants for livestock fodder. It has been widely planted and exported in the ornamental industry due to its large range of drought tolerance and aesthetic value (Beaury et al. 2021). One of its impacts on native communities in California, New Zealand, and Australia include unpalatability for native herbivores, overgrazing more palatable grasses, and diminishing productivity of rangelands where present (Humphries and Florentine 2021, Moran et al. 2018, Russell and Rector 2016). Even in regions with precipitation as low as 300 mm Table 1. ANOVA Biomass Analysis for the effects of N. tenuissima density on B. gracilis growth in the TTU Greenhouse. Values in bold are statistically significant. p-value = 0.05. N Organ System Variable F df p-value 30 Shoot Length 1.12 5 0.3741 Wet net biomass 0.97 5 0.4577 Dry net biomass 1.18 5 0.3458 30 Root Length 0.79 5 0.5679 Wet net biomass 2.9 5 0.0347 Dry net biomass 2.97 5 0.0315 Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 7 Figure 3. Post hoc Tukey Test for B. gracilis dry root biomass under increasing N. tenuissima density treatments for the summer 2022 growing season. p-value = 0.005. Table 2. ANOVA analyses for the estimated organ nitrogen content in B. gracilis (nitrogen (g) per biomass) under increasing N. tenuissima density treatments for summer 2022 growing season. Values in bold are statistically significant. p-value = 0.05. Degrees of freedom = 3. Organ System F p-value Treatment Means N Standard Error Comparison 0 0.05 5 0.01 A Shoot 1.69 0.2085 1 0.04 5 0.01 A 3 0.04 5 0.01 A 5 0.02 5 0.01 A 0 0.20 5 0.02 A Root 9.65 0.0007 1 0.13 5 0.02 A B 3 0.05 5 0.02 B 5 0.04 5 0.02 B Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 8 can grow N. tenuissima plants, making the central prairies of North America a suitable region for expansion. In our experiment the presence of N. tenuissima did not cause remarkable differences in B. gracilis organ length, but it did reduce root biomass (Table 1). Treatment #0 had significantly more biomass for roots compared to the other treatments. This might have influenced the values for gravimetric water content, as the dense and profuse root systems of B. gracilis (Dormaar et al. 1994, Wynia 2007) might absorb water in comparable similar rates to the N. tenuissima roots. Nitrogen content in tissues for summer 2022 was higher for roots (Table 2) compared with shoots. However, some of the B. gracilis plants in Treatments #1 and #3 had already reached maturity and produced seeds, and may have begun withdrawing nutrients from the aboveground biomass. Moretto et al. (2001) found that N. tenuissima and other unpalatable grasses in Argentina immobilize N in their litter. Nitrogen immobilization would impact nutrient dynamics in ecosystems where this grass has been introduced. For other Nassella species introduced in South Africa, the effects of these grasses have been noted to change herbivore behavior by forcing them to select more palatable vegetation, allowing the Nassella plants to expand with little competition (Mapaura et al. 2020). Not just wildlife is impacted, but also livestock as they cannot digest these grasses and when forced it can be harmful to the digestive tract of the herbivore (Campbell 1998, Mapaura et al. 2020). Another serious issue that can arise from these grasses is the high deposition of leaflitter in yards and public spaces that could potentially create large fuel loads for fires (Bell et al. 2009, Fusco et al. 2019, Fusco et al. 2021). Other studies have mentioned the pivotal role fire has in grassland ecosystems (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, Neary et al. 1999, Williams and Baruch 2000), yet the alteration in disturbance regimes or secession of these altogether by land conversion can put human populations at risk (D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, Fusco et al. 2021). Fire risk has risen in the past few decades (Setterfield et al. 2013, Fusco et al. 2019, Fusco et al. 2021). Range expansion of non-native grasses complicates this scenario (Di Tomasso et al. 2017) as some are present in urban settings (Fusco et al. 2021, García-Cancel 2023). The introduction of Nassella tenuissima into new habitats via the ornamental market has allowed it to spread into nearby areas due primarily to high seed production (Humphries and Florentine 2021, Moran et al. 2018, Russell and Rector 2016). However, native areas invaded by this species might experience the detrimental effects of increased thatch, potential changes to fire cycles, and changes in nutrient cycling and native species biomass production. Urban landscapers should minimize the use of this grass due to the potential for harm to ecosystem services and interactions of native communities. More imminent to human safety is the potential of this grass to be a fire hazard, as it produces copious amount of leaf litter where present. This could provide an economic sink as mitigation of fire hazards and changing climatic patterns favor drying conditions in the study area. Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Vikram Baliga for administrative support in greenhouse facilities in the Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX. We also would like to thank Dr. Nicholas G. Smith and Dr. Evan Perkowksi for the laboratory space and guidance with the Costech-4010 Elemental Analyzer. No specific grant from any funding agency, commercial or not-for-profit sectors was received for this research. Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 9 Literature Cited Anderson, M.D. 2003. Bouteloua gracilis. In: Fire effects information system, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available online at https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/bougra/all. html. Accessed 27 March 2022. Archer, S.R., Andersen E.M., Predick K.I., Schwinning S., Steidl R.J., and Woods S.R. 2017. Woody plant encroachment: Causes and consequences. Chapter 2 pp. 25–84, In D.D. Briske (ed.) Rangeland Systems, Springer Series on Environment Management. 661 pp . Bakker, J.D., S.D. Wilson, J.M. Christian, X. Li, L.G. Ambrose, J. Waddington. 2003. Contingency of grassland restoration on year, site, and competition from introduced grasses. Ecological Applications 13:137–153. Beaury, E.M., M. Patrick, and B.A. Bradley. 2021. Invaders for Sale: the Ongoing Spread of Invasive Species by the Plant Trade Industry. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 19(10):550-556. Bell, C.E., J.M. DiTomaso, and M.L. Brooks. 2009. Invasive Plants and Wildfires in Southern California. ANR Publication 8397. University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. Pp. 1–5. Campbell, M.H. 1998. Biological and Ecological Impact of Serrated Tussock (Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Arech.) on pastures in Australia. Australia: Plant Protection. Plant Protection Quarterly Report 13(2). Crooks, J.A. 2005. Lag times and exotic species: The ecology and management of biological invasions in slow-motion. Ecoscience 12(3):316–329. D’Antonio, C.M. and P.M. Vitousek. 1992. Biological invasions, the grass-fire cycle and global change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23:63–87. DiTomaso, J.M., T.A. Monaco, J.J. James and J. Firn. 2017. Invasive plant species and novel rangeland systems. Chapter 13, pp. 429–465, In D.D. Briske (ed.), Rangeland Systems, Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pp. Di Rienzo, J.A., F. Casanoves, M.G. Balzarini, L. Gonzalez, M. Tablada, C.W. Robledo. 2008. InfoStat, version 2011. Grupo InfoStat, FCA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina. Dormaar, J.F., B.W. Adams, W.D. Willms. 1994. Effect of grazing and abandoned cultivation on a Stipa- Bouteloua community. Journal of Range Management 47:28–32. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI). 2022. ArcGIS Release 10.1. Redlands, CA. Accessed 16 May 2019. Evans, R.D., R.A. Gill, V.T. Eviner, V. Bailey. 2017. Soil and belowground processes. Chapter 6, pp. 197–227. In D.D. Briske (ed.) Rangeland Systems, Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pp. Fusco, E.J., J.T. Finn, J.K. Balch, R.C. Nagy and B.A. Bradley. 2019. Invasive grasses increase fire occurrence and frequency across US ecoregions. PNAS. 1 16(47):23594–23599. Fusco, E.J., J.K. Balch, A.L. Mahood, R.C. Nagy., Syphard A.D. and B.A. Bradley. 2021. The human– grass– fire cycle: How people and invasives co-occur to drive fire regimes. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment. 1–10. García-Cancel, J.G. and Thaxton J.M. 2018. Location near grass patches influences native woody species establishment in a Puerto Rican subtropical dry forest. Caribbean Naturalist 51:1–13. García-Cancel, J.G. 2023. Modeling future invasion of three non-native grasses and their effects on native species in semiarid lands. Ph.D. Dissertation. Texas Tech University, USA. 221 pp. Getis, A., and J. K. Ord. 1992. The Analysis of Spatial Association by Use of Distance Statistics. Geographical Analysis 24(3):189–206. Gibson, D.J., J. Connolly, D.C. Harnett, J.D. Weidenhamer. 1999. Designs for greenhouse studies of interactions between plants. Journal of Ecology 87:1–16. Honfi, P., E.A. Eisa, A. Tilly-Mándy, I. Kohut, K. Ecseri, I.D. Mosonyi. 2023. Salt tolerance of Limonium gmelinii subsp. hungaricum as a potential Oornamental plant for secondary salinized soils. Plants 12:1807. Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 10 Humphries, T., and S.K. Florentine. 2021. A Comparative Review of Six Invasive Nassella Species in Australia with Implications for Their Management. Plants 10(1036): 1–17. Ibarra-Flores, F., Cox J.R., Martin-Rivera M., Crowl T.A., Norton B.E., Banner R. E. and R.W. Miller. 1999. Soil physiochemical changes following buffelgrass establishment in Mexico. Arid Soil Research and Rehabilitation, 13(1) 39–52. Jacobs, S.W.L., J. Everett, and M. A. Torres. 1998. Nassella tenuissima (Gramineae) recorded from Australia, a potential new weed related to Serrated Tussock. Telopea 8(1):41–46. Knapp, S., L. Dinsmore, C. Fissore, S.E. Hobbie, I. Jakobsdottir, J. Kattge, J.Y. King, S. Klotz, J.P. McFadden, J. Cavender-Bares. 2012. Phylogenetic and functional characteristics of household yard floras and their changes along an urbanization gradient. Ec ology 93:S83–S98. Kreyling, J., T. Bittner, A. Jaeschke, A. Jentsch, M.J. Steinbauer, D. Thiel, and C. Beierkuhnlein. 2011. Assisted colonization: A question of focal units and recipient localities. Restoration Ecology 19(4):433–440. Lockwood, J.L., M.F. Hoopes and M.P. Marchetti. 2007. Invasion Ecology. Pp. 304, In S. Shannon, H. Berry, R. Hayden, and W. Cooper (Eds.) Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 304 pp. Mapaura, A., K. Canavan, D.M. Richardson, V.R. Clark, S.L Steenhuisen. 2020. The invasive grass genus Nassella in South Africa: A synthesis. South African Journal of Botany 135:336–348. Melgoza-Castillo, A, M.I. Balandrán-Valladares, R. Mata-González, C. Pinedo-Álvarez. 2014. Biology of natal grass Melinis repens (Willd.) and implications for its use or control. Review. Revista Mexicana de Ciencias Pecuarias 5:429–442. Mitchell, A. The ESRI guide to GIS analysis, Volume 2. ESRI Press, 2005. Moran, N.P., A.D. Rowles, A.B. Constantine. 2018. 10 years after Victoria’s major Mexican feather grass incursion: Assessing eradication methods and germination behaviour. In Weed Biosecurity— Protecting Our Future, Proceedings of the 21st Australasian Weeds Conference, Sydney, Australia, 9–13 September 2018; Johnson, S., Weston, L., Wu, H.W., Auld, B., Eds.; Council of Australasian Weed Societies Inc: Sydney, Australia, 2018; 109–114. Moretto, A.S., R.A. Distel and N.G. Didoné. 2001. Decomposition and nutrient dynamic of leaf litter and roots from palatable and unpalatable grasses in a semi-arid arassland. Applied Soil Ecology 18:31–37. Neary D.G., Klopatek C.C., DeBanoc L.F., Ffolliott P.F. 1999. Fire Effects on Belowground Sustainability: a Review and Synthesis. Forest Ecology and Management 122:51–71. Padilla, F.M., and F.I. Pugnaire. 2006. The role of nurse plants in the restoration of degraded environments. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 4(4):196–202. Parkinson, H., C. Zabinski, and N. Shaw. 2013. Impact of native grasses and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) on great basin forb seedling growth. Rangeland Ecology & Mana gement 66:174–180. QGIS geographic information system. Open-Source Geospatial Foundation Project. Available online at http://qgis.osgeo.org. Accessed 23 March 2025. Reichard, S. H., and P. White. 2001. Horticulture as a Pathway of Invasive Plant Introductions in the United States. BioScience 51(2): 103–113. Rojas-Sandoval, J., and E. Meléndez-Ackerman. 2012. Effects of an invasive grass on the demography of the Caribbean cactus Harrisia portoricensis: Implications for cacti conservation. Acta Oecologica 41:30–38. Russell, M.L. and B.S. Rector. 2016. Mexican feathergrass. Texas A&M AgriLife Extension. Pp. 1–4. Samuel, M.J. and R.H. Hart. 1994. Sixty-one years of secondary succession on rangelands of the Wyoming high plains. Journal of Range Management 47:184–191. Seabloom, E.W., E.T. Borer, Y. Buckley, E.E. Cleland, K. Davies et al. 2013. Predicting Invasion in Grassland Ecosystems: is Exotic Dominance the Real Embarrassment of Richness? Global Change Biology 19:3677–3687. Seabloom, E. W., Williams, J. W., Slayback, D., Stoms, D. M. et al. 2006. Human impacts, plant invasion, and imperiled plant species in California. Ecological Applications 16:1338–1350. Setterfield, S.A., N.A. Rossiter-Rachor, M.M. Douglas, L. Wainger, A.M. Petty, P. Barrow, I.J. Shepherd and K.B. Ferdinands. 2013. Adding fuel to the fire: The impacts of non-native grass invasion on fire management at a regional scale. PLoS ONE 8(5):e59144. Urban Naturalist J.G. García-Cancel and R.D. Cox 2025 No. 80 11 Shah, M., S.M. Khan, F. Manan, J. Hussain, Z.U. Din, I. Shah, M. Arshad, and I. Ahmad. 2025. Role of the plant nurseries in spread of invasive alien plant species in Pakistan’s subtropical region; A threat for urban greening. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 105: 128688. Siquieros-Delgado, M.E. 2007. Culm anatomy of Bouteloua and relatives (Gramineae: Chloridoideae: Boutelouinae. Acta Botanica Mexicana 78:39–59. Suding, K.N., K.L. Gross and G.R. Houseman. 2004. Alternative States and Positive Feedbacks in Restoration Ecology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 19(1):46-53. Veldman, J.W. and F.E. Putz. 2010. Long-distance Dispersal of Invasive Grasses by Logging Vehicles in a Tropical Dry Forest. Biotropica 42(6): 697–703. Vilà, M. and D’Antonio, C.M. 1998. Fruit choice and seed dispersal of invasive vs. noninvasive Carpobrotus (Aizoaceae) in coastal California. Ecology 79(3):1053–1060. Vitousek, P.M., H.A. Mooney; J. Lubchenco and J.M. Melillo. 1997. Human domination of earth’s ecosystems. Science, New Series, 277(5325):494–499. Williams D.G. and Baruch Z. 2000. African Grass Invasion in the Americas: Ecosystem Consequences and the Role of Ecophysiology. Biological Invasions 2:123–140. Wilson, S.D. and M. Pärtel. 2003 Extirpation or coexistence? Management of a persistent introduced grass in a prairie restoration. Restoration Ecology 1 1:410–416. Wynia, R. 2007. BLUE GRAMA Bouteloua gracilis (Willd. ex Kunth.) Lag. ex Griffiths plant symbol = BOGR2. USDA-NRCS Plant Guide, Manhattan Plant Materials Center Manhattan, Kansas. 3 pp. Yessoufou, K. 2023. The patterns of intraspecific variations in mass of nectar sugar along a phylogeny distinguish native from non-native plants in urban greenspaces in southern England. Plants 12:3270.