Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 1 2023 Urban Naturalist 69:1–11 Lessons Learned from Managing Urban Peregrine Falcon Nests in Kentucky 1997–2021 Michael D. Patton1*, Kate G. Slankard1, and Kasia R. Bradley1 Abstract– The Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources monitored Kentucky’s nesting population of Peregrine Falcons 1997–2021. As part of these efforts, we monitored the productivity and survival of Peregrine Falcons hatched at urban nest sites using alphanumeric, colored leg bands, and used this data to identify which factors contributed most to the recruitment of young into the breeding population. Of the banded, wild-produced birds, 8% were re-sighted as breeders in the Eastern U.S.A and Canada. Parentage was important, and specifically, a few individual falcons produced more offspring that would go on to be breeders, than others. The percentage of falcons produced that became breeders did not differ significantly between natal sites on bridges and other urban locations. Breeding birds at recently discovered cliff nests included two adults that had been wild-produced at urban sites, indicating that continued management of urban sites may aid gradual expansion of the cliff-nesting peregrine population. Introduction The Falco peregrinus anatum Bonaparte (American Peregrine Falcon) experienced severe population decline during the mid-1900s. This decline was mostly attributable to eggshell thinning caused by the widespread use of the pesticide DDT. By the 1970s, populations east of the Mississippi River were extirpated (USFWS 2003). Restoration efforts in the 1970s–1990s, including the release of captive-bred birds into the wild and the outlawing of DDT in the US, led to a rebound in the nesting population which gained momentum in the Midwestern US in the 1990s (Redig et al. 2020). In Kentucky, the first nest in decades was established and documented on a bridge in downtown Louisville during 1997 (Burford 2001). The American Peregrine Falcon was removed from the United States Fish and Wildlife Service endangered species list in 1999 (USFWS 1999). Nonetheless, due to local conservation concern, the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources (KDFWR) listed the Peregrine Falcon as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need in Kentucky’s State Wildlife Action Plan (KDFWR 2013), and statewide restoration, management, and monitoring initiatives for the species continued to ensure Peregrine Falcons maintained healthy population levels in hopes that the species would re-colonize natural habitats. Reintroduction efforts in Kentucky occurred from 1993–2003, and 115 captive-bred birds were released during this timeframe into urban areas and rural habitats near to cliffs (Dzialak et al. 2005). The KDFWR monitored the nesting population annually starting in 1997 and initiated a nestling banding program in 2001 (Burford 2001). Since then, Kentucky’s nesting population has steadily increased, totaling 17 territorial pairs documented in 2021, with 14 nests on manmade structures (Patton and Bradley 2021). With 82% of Kentucky’s nesting Peregrine Falcon population occurring on manmade structures, it is important to understand how to effectively manage these sites and determine if these nest sites contribute to the recolonization of nests at natural cliff sites. 1 Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Sportsman’s Lane, Frankfort, KY 40601* Corresponding author – michael.patton@ky.gov Associate Editor: David Krauss, City University of New York. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 2 Several studies have investigated the nest success and/or productivity of urban peregrine nest sites in eastern North America (Gahbauer et al. 2015a, Kelly et al. 2018, Watts et al. 2018) and elsewhere (Altwegg et al. 2014, Kettel et al. 2019). Some of these studies demonstrated the benefit of nest boxes (Altwegg et al. 2014, Gahbauer et al. 2015a) and rescue of grounded fledglings (Gahbauer et al. 2015a) for increasing productivity and/or survival. Dispersal patterns in Peregrine Falcons produced in nest sites in the Eastern US have also been examined by several studies (Dennhardt and Wakamiya 2013, Faccio et al. 2013, and Katzner et al. 2012) with females typically dispersing farther than males to their first breeding location. The effect of natal site type on breeding site selection has also been a topic of study. Katzner et al. (2012) observed no preference for birds produced at one site type (e.g., bridge, building, cliff) to choose to breed at that or another site type. In contrast, Faccio et al. (2013) found that birds showed a tendency to nest on surfaces that were similar to those from which they fledged. Past studies on Peregrine Falcons in Kentucky have focused on reintroduction efforts, home range, or mitigation techniques (Dzialak et al. 2007, Slankard et al. 2020, Taylor et al. 2020). Survival of captive-bred falcons during the post-fledging period in 1993–2003 in Kentucky was reported by Dzialak et al. (2007). Mitigation techniques for a pair of Peregrine Falcons nesting on a bridge during reconstruction were described in Slankard et al. (2020). While Dzialak et al. (2005) discussed the re-sighting of selected captive-bred individuals at nest sites, the overall recruitment of birds hacked during 1993–2003 into the nesting population has not been previously quantified in Kentuck y. Further, research on the long-term survival and recruitment of wild-produced young falcons into the breeding population, in relation to natal nest site management, is sparse. Tordoff et al. (2000) explored the relationship between the size of a brood from which individuals fledged to their probability of becoming a breeder in the Midwestern US and found no relation. Gahbauer et al. (2015b) found that wild-produced young were recruited to the breeding population almost twice as frequently as captive-bred birds in Ontario, Canada. Since urban nest sites inevitably require management, it is important to managers that these efforts contribute to the growth and stability of nesting populations. In this study, we monitored the productivity and survival of Peregrine Falcons hatched at urban nest sites through the use of alphanumeric, colored leg bands. The objective of this study was to utilize Peregrine Falcon monitoring data, collected over 25 years in Kentucky, to guide the management of this species going forward. Specifically, we aimed to identify factors which contributed most to the recruitment of young into the breeding population. We further endeavored to evaluate the effects of other management considerations (e.g., disease, fledgling rescues, etc.) on the survival and recruitmen t of young falcons. Methods Field methods In order to monitor as much of the Kentucky population as possible, we followed up on reports from the public to document new nest sites and conducted surveys for nesting at bridges in 2012 and 2018. We also conducted cliff surveys in areas with suitable cliff habitat (the Kentucky River Palisades, the Red River Gorge, and various locations in southeast KY) during 2008, 2011, 2012, and 2018. To increase nest site availability and productivity, we installed 29 nest boxes at many urban locations throughout Kentucky between 1997 and 2021. Five nest boxes were installed on bridges, 5 at industrial facilities, 8 on buildings, and 11 at power plants. At accessible Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 3 sites, we banded nestling Peregrine Falcons between the age of 21 and 28 days. We determined the sex of individuals using morphological measurements (Cade et al. 1996). Each Peregrine Falcon was fitted with a United States Geological Survey (USGS) leg band etched with a unique 9-digit number and a bi-colored band with a unique series of colors, letters, and numbers. All banding was permitted by the USGS Bird Banding Laboratory (BBL; Permit #23400). During the years 2005–2021, we tested 238 nestlings for Trichomonas gallinae Rivolta by use of a mouth swab, which we sent to the University of Tennessee at Knoxville for culture and/or PCR testing. We re-sighted the leg bands of individuals through extended observations using a high-powered spotting scope, observer photography or automated photography (i.e., trail cameras at nest boxes). We monitored most nest sites during fledging and assisted grounded fledglings, when found or reported, by placing them back in the nest or at a nearby high location (e.g., rooftop). Data assembly and statistical analysis In order to gather data for this study, we queried the BBL for all band encounters of Peregrine Falcons banded in Kentucky (1997–2021). We also queried the Midwest Peregrine Society database (Midwest Peregrine Society 2022) for encounter and breeding location information, in addition to utilizing our own long-term database. One site along the Ohio- Kentucky state line at the Russell-Ironton Bridge was managed and banded by KDFWR until 2008 and then the Ohio Division of Wildlife took over management for the site after the nest moved to the Ohio side of the state line. We include data from this site prior to 2008 and exclude it from that point forward. Birds were considered breeders if they were observed at breeding age at a nest where eggs, incubation or chicks were observed. Generalized linear mixed modeling was used to test the relationship between an individual being re-sighted as a breeder (binary response: breeder or not breeder) and explanatory variables of natal site type, mother, father, being rescued as a hatch year, and testing positive for Trichomonas. Akaike Information Criterion (AICc) model selection was used to select the best fitting model explaining the factors that led to a Peregrine Falcon becoming a breeder. Model averaging was used to obtain parameter estimates and 95% confidence intervals for multiple competing models (ΔAICc< 2.0) using package MuMIn and function model.avg (Bartoń 2023). Peregrine Falcons that were captive-bred, banded as adults, or had unknown natal sites were removed from this portion of the analysis. We calculated the number of years each breeding adult nested by counting the years including and between the first year the bird was re-sighted as a breeder and the last year. We categorized each nest site into 4 types: power plant, bridge, industrial facility, and city building. Due to a relatively small number of banded, breeding falcons, a Mann-Whitney U or Kruskal Wallis (when data was non-parametric) test was used to perform univariate analyses of each attribute to the mentioned responses. We used chi-square goodness-of-fit tests to compare the association between natal site type and eventual breeding site type, and between Trichomonas status and being re-sighted as a breeder. The program, R, was used to perform all statistical analyses (R Core Team 2022). Results One hundred fifteen captive-bred Peregrine Falcons were released in Kentucky during reintroduction efforts (1993–2003). Of these, 3.47% (4/115) became breeders in Kentucky and 1.7% (2/115) nested outside of the state. The last known, captive-bred breeding adult from Kentucky died in 2014 at the age of 17 after nesting at a bridge for many years. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 4 During 1997–2021 there was a growing number of territories and active nests monitored throughout the state. In 2006 there were 9 territories with six nests, in 2014 there were 13 territories with 10 nests, and in 2021 there were 17 territories with 15 nests. During 1997–2021, 522 known Peregrine Falcon young were wild-produced in Kentucky nests and 67% (348/522) were banded. Of the banded birds, 17% (62/348) were encountered again by Dec 2021 and 8.0% (28/348) were re-sighted as breeders in the Eastern U.S.A and Canada. Six percent (21/348; 10 male and 11 female) were confirmed as breeders in Kentucky. Of all re-sighted falcons, 39% (24/62) were male and 61% (38/62) were female. Of the birds re-sighted as breeders, 57% (16/28) were male and 43% (12/28) were female. There were 4 competing models to describe the relationship between banded falcons resighted as breeders, and the explanatory parameters (Table 1). Through model averaging, parentage, specifically the male falcon, 816-66344 (P=<0.001) and the natal site type, “industrial plants” (P=0.032), were found to be the significant coefficients of the competing models. The male falcon, 816-66344, produced significantly more offspring that would go on to be breeders than any other male (N=10, P=<0.001; Fig. 1.) The female falcon, 1807-53995, produced significantly more breeding falcons than any other female (N=6, P=0.002; Fig. 2.). Statistically, the natal site type and eventual breeding site type were not significantly associated (P=0.137). The number of offspring produced by a breeding falcon was not associated with the breeding site type (P=0.888) or the natal site type (P=0.454). Specific nest sites did vary in the number of breeding birds that were produced and LG&E Trimble County produced more breeding Peregrine Falcons than other successful nest sites (Fig. 3). However, the percentage of falcons produced that became breeders did not differ between natal sites on bridges (pooled) and other urban locations (power plants, Figure 1. Number of banded offspring per banded, breeding male. Numbers over each bar represent the number of years an individual nested. Banded offspring were more likely to become breeders if they were sired by 816-66344. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 5 skyscrapers, industrial sites, pooled; P=0.08). The amount of banded, breeding falcons in Kentucky peaked in 2015 and steadily decreased after that, as the population of breeding birds in the state continued to rise (Fig. 4). Of the 348 Peregrine Falcons that were banded, 64 (18.4%) were rescued shortly after fledging. Four of 28 (14.3%) falcons re-sighted as breeders were rescued as fledglings. Being rescued in the first year after hatching did not increase the likelihood of a falcon being re-sighted as a breeder (P=0.747), and there was no association with being rescued in the first year after hatching and the number of offspring produced (P=0.64). The number of years an adult bird nested was not associated with being rescued as a fledgling (P=0.947). Of the Trichomonas samples taken (N=238), 19 Peregrine Falcons tested positive. None of the 19 falcons that tested positive for Trichomonas were re-sighted as adults and there was no statistical association between the two variables (P=0.27). Figure 2. Number of banded offspring per banded, breeding female. Numbers over each bar represent the number of years each individual nested. The female falcon, 1807-53995, produced significantly more breeding offspring than any other banded female falcon. Table 1. The 4 best fit models that describe which factors influence a Peregrine Falcon to become a breeding bird. Models AICc AiCcWt Cum. Wt LL Father + Trichomonas 0 0.25 0.25 -78.30 Natal Site + Trichomonas + Father 0.58 0.19 0.44 -75.21 Father 0.61 0.18 0.62 -80.83 Natal Site + Trichomonas 1.92 0.10 0.72 -91.14 Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 6 Discussion A significant goal in restoration efforts was to reestablish the species in historic cliff nesting habitats, and 2 nest sites on natural cliffs have been discovered in Kentucky in recent years. Breeding birds at these sites included un-banded birds, as well as a female that had been wild-produced at a bridge, and a male that was wild-produced at a power plant. Unfortunately, these cliffs are not accessible for nestling banding, but the presence of nesting adults which originated from human-made natal sites is encouraging that continued management of urban sites may lead to further expansion of the peregrine population to more cliff sites, albeit slowly. Rangewide, the goal of returning this species to cliff habitats has been met with mixed success thus far (Watts et al. 2018). Use of human-made structures for nesting has become fairly widespread in urban areas, whereas the species only occasionally used these areas in North America prior to reintroduction (Faccio et al. 2013). The positive side to this result may be population resiliency to climate change. Sumasgutner et al. (2020), studied the breeding performance of Peregrine Falcons under varying weather conditions and found that falcons breeding in nest boxes were less sensitive to local weather changes than pairs using natural nest sites. Based on these results, they suggested that the urban peregrine population may better withstand climate change and extreme weather events. Bridge sites can require considerable mitigation and coordination when it comes to bridge maintenance (Slankard et al. 2020). Thus, the contribution of these sites to the greater population is worth evaluation. We found no significant difference between bridge sites (pooled) and other site types (pooled) in the production of young that eventually became breeders (Fig. 4). Other studies have noted lower productivity at bridge sites when comparing to other urban site types (Gahbauer et al. 2015a), and fledging success can be low at bridge sites (Bell et al. 1996). However, our data shows these sites can produce young which contribute to the nesting population. A reduced number of young may benefit the fitness of those surviving to dispersal age at bridge sites due to increased parental care during the post-fledging window. We also installed nest boxes at selected bridges and rescued several young from bridge sites. Assistance with fledging may boost survival at these sites even though we didn’t find that fledging assistance increased the likelihood of a falcon being re-sighted as a breeder overall. Four of 28 (14.3%) falcons, re-sighted as breeders, were rescued as hatch years, and two of these were hatched at bridge sites. Thus, assisted fledging may be worthwhile, in the early phase of a species' recovery or when a significant portion of the population occurs on bridges. None of the 19 falcons that tested positive for Trichomonas were re-sighted as adults, possibly indicating that exposure to this disease during the nestling phase may be catastrophic for survival. Exposure to trichomonads has been associated with consumption of pigeons and doves (Columbiformes) as prey, but may also be found in some passerines (Anderson et al. 2010, Samour and Naldo 2003). Urban peregrines are more likely to rely on pigeons for a large portion of their diet, and thus, this threat is probably more significant for urban nests. Statistically, the natal site type and eventual breeding site type were not significantly associated in our study. Our results agreed with the findings of Katzner et al. (2012), which observed no preference for birds produced at one site type (e.g., bridge, building, cliff) to choose to breed at that or another site type. However, our results conflicted with Faccio et al. (2013), which found that birds showed a tendency to nest on surfaces that were similar (cliff vs. building) to those from which they fledged. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 7 Due to accessibility and safety issues, we focused our banding efforts at sites where nests were in nest boxes. However, all sites were monitored for banded breeding adults, regardless of nest box status. Therefore, it’s important to consider that our sample of banded birds from sites where the nest was not in a nest box was extremely small. In addition, while the natal site type, “industrial plants”, was found to be important for falcons re-sighted as breeders, we think this was an effect of a small sample size of birds banded at this site type. We did not find that the number of recruited offspring produced by a breeding falcon was associated with the breeding site type. However, we did observe differences between nesting sites and the number of breeding birds that were produced, with one site producing more than the others. This is further discussed below, but we surmise that local-scale site specifics (structure, predator abundance, etc.) are likely more important for survivability than the generalized type of the site (power plant vs. city building). We found parentage to be important for future recruitment. It has been inferred in the past that individuals vary in productivity, which is correlated with life span (Tordoff and Redig 1997). In theory, longer lived birds should produce more offspring that are recruited into the nesting population. In addition, Peregrine Falcons that start breeding in their first year have been found to have greater lifetime reproductive success than birds entering the breeding pool as adults (Zabala and Zuberogoitia 2015). Vergara et al. (2010) found that Figure 3. Young produced (wild) and banded at nest sites where young were banded. LG&E Trimble Co. Station produced more young later re-sighted as a breeder than any other site. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 8 fledglings raised by higher-quality (as assessed using body condition and mass), Eurasian Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) parents showed longer post-fledging dependence periods, a crucial stage for survival. The male (816-66344) that produced the most offspring which later became breeders (Fig. 1) was a captive-bred individual. His success was supported by an 8-year term of nesting at the same site and a long lifespan (14 years). However, many breeding males had longer nesting terms and did not produce as many young that were recruited into the nesting population (Fig. 1). The female falcon (1807-53995) that produced the most offspring, which later became breeders (Fig. 2), was a wild-produced individual that was the mate of (816-66344) for 7 years. Again, many breeding females had longer nesting terms and did not produce as many young that were recruited into the nesting population (Fig. 2). The nuances of this pair’s particular nest site which did produce more recruited young than other sites were likely important, in addition to behavioral parental factors and a long nesting term for the pair (not just each individual). Although we did not find an association between the number of offspring produced by a breeding falcon and the breeding site type (power plant, bridge, etc.), it is apparent that some nest sites are superior, due to structural characteristics, than others. For instance, this pair’s nest site was in a nest box in the side of a building at a power plant that had a lower rooftop directly in front of it. The simple availability of a safe location, off the ground, for fledging to occur may make this site superior for long term survivability. Further study would help to discern the importance of site-sp ecific vs. parental factors in the production of recruited young. Figure 4. The number of breeding and banded, and total breeding Peregrine Falcons in Kentucky with mean age by sex during 2000–2021. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 9 Our long-term monitoring efforts documented some fairly lengthy nesting terms for both male and female breeding falcons, with a few individuals of each sex nesting for over a decade (Figs. 1 and 2). Our anecdotal observations, satellite tracking and long-term monitoring efforts suggest Kentucky’s nesting Peregrine Falcon population is non-migratory, residing at territories year-round (Taylor et al. 2020), and this may support longevity at nesting territories. Remaining at territories year-round circumvents migration, which is energetically expensive and can lead to greater mortality (Newton 2007; Franke et al. 2011). Most of the expansion of the nesting population in recent years has been supported by nest box installations and partnerships with relevant utility companies, industrial facilities, and public agencies (i.e., transportation). In 2021, 63% (10/16) of Peregrine Falcon nests in Kentucky were in nest boxes and 59.4% (19/32) of young known to fledge came from these nests (Patton and Bradley 2021). The dependence of the population on partnerships and nest boxes will no doubt require management effort into the future to sustain the population and spur further growth into cliff habitats. Evaluations of monitoring data such as this can be useful for prioritizing these efforts going forward. When management resources are limited, it is reasonable to focus efforts on the sites which lead to the most eventual recruitment (Fig. 3). As evaluations like these are not possible without banding efforts, some level of banding is required to make such assessments into the future, if desired. During 1997–2021, 67% (348/522) of known Peregrine Falcon young, wild-produced in Kentucky, were banded and 50.0% (21/42) of the banded falcons that nested in Kentucky were wildproduced here. Thus, band recovery ratios are no doubt affected by the amount of banding effort conducted elsewhere in the region. The number of banded, breeding birds in Kentucky peaked in 2014 and 2017 and steadily decreased after that (See Fig. 4), despite the number of nesting pairs continuing to increase. Federally coordinated post-delisting monitoring efforts ended in 2015, and banding efforts in some states ceased or were cut back at that point (Midwest Peregrine Society 2022). Thus, this pattern likely reflects a falling percentage of banded birds in the regional population. The mean age of banded, breeding falcons has increased, especially over the past decade, indicating the banded, breeding population is aging (See Fig. 4). While this probably represents good longevity in breeding individuals, we may see a continued decline in the number of banded, breeding individuals in the coming years as these older birds are replaced and a smaller proportion of the nestlings are banded. While regional banding efforts are likely to continue to decrease going forward, the banding studies for Peregrine Falcons across the Eastern US during this species’ recovery have demonstrated the dispersal and movement capabilities of these birds across state lines. Overall, these efforts emphasize the need to manage this population at the regional level to maintain long term stability. Acknowledgments We recognize the many cooperators that support Peregrine Falcon nest sites, and acknowledge Louisville Gas and Electric Company and Kentucky Utilities Company for funding. We thank our nongame bird technicians and previous biologists for their time on this project: Laura Burford, Shawchyi Vorisek, Loren Taylor, Budd Veverka, Adam Smith, Megan Connor, Dan Stoelb, Ben Leffew, Tonya Mammone, Caleb Switzer, Michael Arnold, Rashelle Juric, Bree Furfey, Meghan Raley, and Benjamin Bowman. We acknowledge Dr. Rick Gerhold at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, for disease testing. We also worked with the following rehabilitators on falcon rescues: Raptor Rehabilitation of Kentucky, Wingspan of Kentucky, and Broadbent Wildlife Sanctuary. We thank the Midwest Peregrine Society for coordinating monitoring and data organization through the years. Urban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 10 Literature Cited Altwegg, R., A. Jenkins, and F. Abadi. 2014. Nestboxes and immigration drive the growth of an urban Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) population. Ibis 156(1):107–115. Anderson, N.L., C.K. Johnson, S. Fender, S. Heckly, M. Metzler, P. Nave, J. Yim. 2010. Clinical signs and histopathologic findings associated with a newly recognized protozoal disease (Trichomonas gallinae) in free-ranging House Finches (Carpodacus mexicanus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41(2):249–254. Bartoń, K. 2023. MuMIn: Multi-Model Inference. R package versio n 1.47.5 Available online at https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn. Accesssed on 18 August 2022. Bell, D. A., D.P. Gregoire, and B.J. Walton. 1996. Bridge use by Peregrine Falcons in the San Francisco Bay area. Pp. 15–24, In Bird, D., D. Varland, and J. Negro. Raptors in Human Landscapes: Adaptations to built and cultivated environments. Academic Press, New York, USA. 396 pp. Burford, L. 2001. 2001 Annual Report. Internal Report. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort, KY, USA. 5 pp. Cade, T.J., J.H. Enderson, and J. Linthicum. 1996. Guide to management of Peregrine Falcons at the eyrie. The Peregrine Fund. Boise, Idaho, USA. 97 pp. Dennhardt, A.J., and S.M. Wakamiya. 2013. Effective dispersal of Peregrine Falcons (Falco peregrinus) in the Midwest, USA. Journal of Raptor Research 47(3):262–270. Dzialak, M.R., L.S. Burford, S. Vorisek, M.J. Lacki, and B. Palmer-Ball. 2005. The Peregrine Falcon and its recovery in Kentucky. The Kentucky Warbler 81(2):39–46. Dzialak, M.R., M.J. Lacki, and S. Vorisek. 2007. Survival, mortality, and morbidity among Peregrine Falcons reintroduced in Kentucky. Journal of Raptor Research 41(1):61–65. Dzialak, M.R., K.M. Carter, M.J. Lacki, D.F. Westneat, and K. Anderson. 2009. Activity of postfledging Peregrine Falcons in different rearing and habitat conditions. Southeastern Naturalist 8(1):93–106. Faccio, S.D., M. Amaral, C.J. Martin, J.D. Lloyd, T.W. French, and A. Tur. 2013. Movement patterns, natal dispersal, and survival of Peregrine Falcons banded in New England. Journal of Raptor Research 47(3):246–261. Franke, A., J. Therrien, S. Descamps, and J. Bêtty. 2011. Climatic conditions during outward migration affect apparent survival of an arctic top predator, the Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus. Journal of Avian Biology 42(6):544–551. Gahbauer, M.A., D.M. Bird, K.E. Clark, T. French, D.W. Brauning, and F.A. McMorris. 2015a. Productivity, mortality, and management of urban peregrine falcons in Northeastern North America. The Journal of Wildlife Management 79(1):10–19. Gahbauer, M.A., D.M. Bird, and T. Armstrong. 2015b. Origin, growth, and composition of the recovering Peregrine Falcon population in Ontario. Journal of Raptor Research 49(3):281–293. Katzner, T., J.D. Winton, F.A. McMorris, and D. Brauning. 2012. Dispersal, band encounters, and causes of death in a reintroduced and rapidly growing population of peregrine falcons. Journal of Raptor Research 46(1):75–83. KDFWR. 2013. Kentucky State Wildlife Action Plan. Frankfort, KY, USA. Available online at https:// app.fw.ky.gov/kyswap/. Accessed on 14 September 2022. Kelly, C. A., S.E. Cameron, and A.C. Boynton. 2018. Peregrine falcon breeding performance in North Carolina during the 13-year post-delisting period of 2003–2015. Southeastern Naturalist 17(1):130–140. Kettel, E. F., L.K. Gentle, R.W. Yarnell, and J.L. Quinn. 2019. Breeding performance of an apex predator, the peregrine falcon, across urban and rural landscapes. Urban Ecosystems 22(1):117–125. Midwest Peregrine Society. 2022. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN, USA. Available online at https://midwestperegrine.umn.edu/. Accessed on 14 September 2022. Newton, I. 2007. Weather-related mass-mortality events in migrants. Ibis 149(3):453–467. Patton, M., and K. Bradley. 2021. 2021 Kentucky Peregrine Falcon report. Internal Report. Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources, Frankfort, KY, USA. 16 pp. R Core Team. 2022. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria. Available online at https://www.R-project.org/. AcUrban Naturalist M.D. Patton and K.G. Slankard, and K.R. Bradley 2023 No. 69 11 cessed on 18 August 2022. Redig, P.T., J.S. Castrale, and A. Burnette. 2020. Midwest Peregrine Falcon restoration, 2020 Report. Midwest Peregrine Society, St. Paul, MN, USA. 60 pp. Samour, J.H., and J.L. Naldo. 2003. Diagnosis and therapeutic management of trichomoniasis in falcons in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 17(3):136–143. Slankard, K.G., L.F. Taylor, D.M. Stoelb, and C. Gannon. 2020. Peregrine Falcons nest successfully during reconstruction of bridge over Ohio River. Human-Wildlife Interactions 14(1):96–103. Sumasgutner, P., A. Jenkins, A. Amar, and R. Altwegg. 2020. Nest boxes buffer the effects of climate on breeding performance in an African urban raptor. PLOS ONE 15(6):1–24. Taylor, L., K. Slankard, and A. Stump. 2020. Home range of an adult female Peregrine Falcon during the breeding and non-breeding seasons in Kentucky, USA. Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Science 81(1):1–10. Tordoff, H.B., and P.T. Redig. 1997. Midwest Peregrine Falcon demography, 1982–1995. Journal of Raptor Research 31(4):339–346. Tordoff, H.B., J.S. Castrale, M.S. Martell, and P. T. Redig. 2000. Brood size and survival to breeding in Midwestern Peregrine Falcons. Journal of Field Ornithology. 71(4):691–693. US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 2003. Monitoring plan for the American Peregrine Falcon, a species recovered under the Endangered Species Act. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Report. Divisions of Endangered Species and Migratory Birds and State Programs, Pacific Region, Portland, OR, USA. 53 pp. US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1999. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; final rule to remove the American Peregrine Falcon from the federal list of endangered and threatened wildlife, and to remove similarity of appearance provision for free-flying peregrines in the conterminous united states. Federal Register 64(164):46542–46558. Vergara, P., J.A. Fargallo, and J. Martínez-Padilla. 2010. Reaching independence: food supply, parent quality, and offspring phenotypic characters in kestrels. Behavioral Ecology 21(3):507–512. Watts, B.D., M.A. Byrd, E.K. Mojica, S.M. Padgett, S.R. Harding, and C.A. Koppie. 2018. Longterm monitoring of a successful recovery program of Peregrine Falcons in Virginia. Ornis Hungarica 26(2):104–113. Zabala, J., and I. Zuberogoitia. 2015. Breeding performance and survival in the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) support an age-related competence improvement hypothesis mediated via an age threshold. J Avian Biology 45:141–150.